Handbook of clearing and grubbing methods and cost

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BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE

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THE GIFT OF

HENRY W. SAGE

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Cornell University Library
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Handbook of clearing and grubbing metliod

3 1924 003 983 420

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CLEARING AND GRUBBING

WORKS OF HALBERT P. GILLETTE

Handbook of Cost Data

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JOINT AUTHOR WORKS

Cost Keeping and Management Engineering
By Halbert P. Gillette and Richard T. Dana
A treatise for civil engineers and contractors.
360 pages, 184 figures, 5x8. $3.50

Concrete Construction, Methods and Cost

By Halbert P. Gillette and Chas. S. Hill
A treatise on concrete and reinforced concrete struc-
tures of every kind. 700 pages, 306 figures, 6x9.
Cloth. . . . . $5.00

HANDBOOK

OF

CLEARING AND GRUBBING

METHODS AND COST

BY
HALBERT POWERS GILLETTE

Member American Society of Civil Engineers

Member American Institute of Mining Engineers

Member American Society of Mechanical Engineers

Member Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education

ILLVSTBATED

NEW YORK

1917

Copyright 1917

BY

CLARK BOOK COMPANY, Inc.

PREFACE

More than half the tillable area of the United States
was originally forest. East of the Mississippi there was
comparatively little arable land not covered with trees
200 years ago. Of the 400,000,000 acres of farm land
now under cultivation, it is a conservative estimate that
50 per cent had to be cleared and stumped before it
could be cropped. Assuming, then, that 200,000,000
acres of farm land in America have been cleared and
grubbed at an average cost of only $10 an acre, there
has been expended $2,000,000,000 for this work. The
staggering size of this sum would naturally lead a person
to expect to find many books on the subject of clearing
and grubbing, but the present book is the first and only
one of its kind.

By state and federal departments of government there
have been published a number of valuable bulletins on
the subject, but in none of these is there to be found
even a general review of all the different methods of
clearing trees and removing stumps. Beside collecting
into this book all the valuable information contained in
bulletins, I have also compiled all that I could find in
periodical literature. In addition I have abstracted
from catalogs of manufacturers a considerable amount
of excellent material.

I have published several original articles in Engineer-
ing and Contracting, the contents of which will be found
herein. As an engineering contractor I have had charge
of clearing and grubbing operations under some of the
most difficult conditions. I have built stump pullers
capable of exerting a strain of 100,000 lbs. I have
blasted out fir stumps 12 ft. in diameter above the ground
level, and have doiiie clearing and "stumping" under
such severe conditions that the cost was $400 an acre
after the standing timber had been cut and logged off.
These facts are mentioned to give the reader at least
some measure of my competence to write on the subject
and to compile with judgment what others have written.

PREFACE

In the work of compilation I have been ably assisted by
Mr.. Arthur P. Aekerman.

Wherever possible the costs of clearing and grubbing
have been given in such detail that the reader will be
able to substitute the rates of wages and prices of
materials prevailing in his own locality. It is often said
that cost data that have not been recently gathered are
almost valueless. This is one of those erroneous gen-
eralizations that pass for full-flowered truth because
there is a seed of truth in their make-up. Prices of ma-
terials and rates of wages do change, and often quite
rapidly, but if cost data are presented in sufficient detail,
due allowance for such changes can be readily made by
the reader. Of course where methods and machines have
been greatly improved, old cost data may be valueless;
but it is particularly true of clearing and grubbing that
there have been no very noteworthy improvements in
recent years. Such as have occurred are fully described
in this volume, and several of them are so meritorious
under certain conditions as to be actually revolutionary
in their character. For example, there is the method
of "char-pitting" for the removal of large stumps. The
use of power-driven augers is another innovation well
worthy of careful consideration. The piling of stumps
and logs around a mast, with the aid of cables and a
donkey engine, is another noteworthy method that is
relatively new.

My residence in western Washington gave me the
opportunity to see nearly all the methods herein de-
scribed and to use many of them myself. I am convinced
that there is opportunity for vastly improving even the
best that has been yet accomplished in the removal of
stumps. In Washington, Oregon and California there
are 850,000 acres of logged-off land where stumps are
still standing. This presents a reclamation problem that
may well claim the attention of the best engineering
talent. Yet because clearing and grubbing have so long
been regarded as somewhat beneath an engineer's con-
sideration, engineers are slow in awakening to the great
opportunities that here present themselves.

Halbert Powers Gillette.

New York City, March 15, 1917.

CONTENTS

chapter page

Glossary of Terms . ... .1

I. Cost Estimating and Appraising . . 5

Factors in Clearing and Grul)bing Costs, 5-9 ; Estimating
Clearing and G-rubbing Costs, further factors affecting
costs, 9-16. Appraisals and Valuations, 16-18.

II. Specifications . . . . . . . 19

Criticism of Specifications, 19-23. Legal decision relating
to Clearing and Grubbing, 24. Specifications for Clearing
and Grubbing on roads, 24-28. Specifications for Clearing
and Grubbing on dams and reservoirs, 28-31. Specifications
for Clearing and Grubbing on rail-ways, 31—34.

III. Clearing . . . ... 35

Land clearing practice, 35-37. Tools, 37-39. Methods
and Costs in Minnesota, Comparison of Methods of clear-
ing, 39—52. Treatment of land after clearing, 52-54. Ex-
amples of cost, 54-57. Cord wood, 58-59.

IV. Grubbing by Hand ... ... 60

Tools, 60. Grubbing helped by frost and high wind, 61-
62. Examples of cost, 62-67.

V. Burning and Char-pitting .68

Burning aided by boring, 68-69. Char-pitting, 70-75.
Portable stoves, 75-76. Blowing machine, 76-78. Distill-
ing stumps in place, 89.

VI. Blasting ... . 92

Kinds of explosive, 92. Tools and methods, 93-101.
Placing charge, 101-109. Amount of explosive to use, 109-
111. Boring stumps for blasting, 111-115. Examples of
costs, 115-136.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

VII. Hand, Horse and Powee Sttjmp Pullers . . 137

Cost of stump pullers, 137-138. Man power stump pull-
ers, 138-145. Horse power stump pullers, 145-151.
Method o£ hitching to stumps, 151-162. Power stump pull-
ers, 162-194. Examples of cost, 194-227.

VIII. Heavy Plows . . 228

Special Plows, 228-229. Examples of Cost of Plowing
Brush, 229-232.

Directory of Manufactures . 233

Index . . 235

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Definitions of words. The following are some of
the common terms used by woodsmen and others engaged
in clearing and stumping.

Barking or Bossing are terms used for the operation
of removing the bark from one side of logs or from the
entire log. This work is done to reduce friction in
skidding. It includes cutting off knots and projections
that would interfere with the progress of the log.

Bruiting is a term used to designate the operation of
hauling and rolling logs by hand from the stump to a
point where other means of transportation can be
secured.

Bucking is the operation of cutting the tree up into
logs. This is done with power-driven saws in some parts
of the country.

Bucker. A man who cuts up trees into logs. A
"wood bucker" is a man who gets fire wood for operat-
ing a donkey engine.

Bull Cook. A man who does chores for the cook.

Chaser. A man who removes a line or "choker" from
a log at the place it is landed.

Choker. A rope or chain that is slung around a log
or stump. A "choker man" is one who places a line
around a log.

Clearing. This term is used by civil engineers to de-
note the falling and removing of trees and brush, but
not the removing of stumps which they call grubbing.
But farmers usually apply the term "clearing" to
stumping and burning stumps, as well as to cutting
down trees and brush.

Deadening or Girdling consists in cutting a ring
around the tree deep enough to penetrate to the heart
wood. This ring is made just above the root swelling
approximately at the sawing point. In cypress swamps

2 GLOSSARY OF TERMS

girdling which precedes felling from a few weeks to
several months is generally done by contract for 7 or 8
cents a tree. One man will girdle about 25 trees a day.

Faller. A man who cuts down, or "falls" trees. A
logging gang has a "head faller" and a "second faller."

Felling or falling is the operation of cutting down the
tree. Contract felling and log making in lodge-pole pine
ranges from $1.25 to $2.00 per thousand feet; in yellow
pine and cypress from 35 to 50 cents; in fir from 50
to 80 cents.

Flunkey. A waiter in a camp.

Grubbing. Civil engineers use grubbing to denote the
removal of stumps and roots, whether by blasting, pull-
ing, or otherwdse; and it is often specified that the term
"grubbing" is to include burning the stumps. A syno-
nymous word is "stumping."

Notching is a term that includes marking the trees
which are to be felled, making the undercut for the
fallers, and marking the log lengths on the fallen tree.

Ranking. Arranging regularly in piles.

Rigging Slinger. The man who changes and places
the wire cables used in handling logs.

Scaling is measuring logs to determine their contents
in ft. B. M.

Slashing is the debris left after logging.

Snaking or skidding is the operation of dragging logs
end foremost from the point where cut to a river, logging
railroad or other means of trajisportation.

Sniping. Previous to skidding the forward end of a
large log is "sniped" or "nosed." This consists in
rounding off the under side of the log so that it will
not catch on obstructions. Where the ground is rough
and the log is likely to roll over, the entire front end is
sniped.

Stumping. Removing stumps. See "grubbing."

Stumping Powder. A dynamite low in nitro-glycerin.

Swamping is cutting the limbs from the fallen tree.
The term is also used to include clearing away brush
and limbs to make skidways.

Yarding. Piling the logs preparatory to loading and
hauling away.

GLOSSARY OF TEEMS

The foregoing definitions are taken partly from the
author's experience and partly from "Logging," by
Ralph Clement Bryant (1913), in which will be found
a very complete glossary of logging terms.

CLEARING AND GRUBBING

CHAPTER I

COST ESTIMATING AND APPRAISING

Factors in clearing and grubbing cost. Clearing
consists in cutting down and removing or burning trees
and brush, except the stumps. Gruhiing, or stumping,
consists in excavating and removing stumps. The unit
of measure is usually the acre, but occasionally the square
rod (160 per acre), and at other times the "great
square" (100 x 100 ft.), is the unit of measure for grub-
bing. In railroad work, a ' ' station ' ' of 100 ft. in length
and a width equal to that of the right of way is usually
the unit of clearing.

In clearing trees, the following are important elements
affecting the cost per acre:

1. Number of trees per acre.

2. Average diameter.

3. Average height.

4. Kind of tree.

5. Density of wood.

6. Whether the logs and limbs are cut up and hauled
off, or are chopped into cordwood, or are burned.

7. Weather conditions.

8. Efficiency of workmen and wage rate.

9. Size of job.

Unfortunately no published record of the cost of clear-
ing gives all these factors, but many give a sufficient
number of the factors to guide the reader sufficiently
well.

In grubbing stumps, the following are important ele-
ments affecting the cost per acre:

5

6

CLEARING AND GRUBBING

1. Number of stumps per acre.

2. Average diameter at cut-off.

3. Kind of tree.

4. Green or dead.

5. Kind of earth and degree of wetness.

6. Pulled or blasted.

7. Type of roots.

8. Burned or hauled away.

9. Weather.

10. Ground frozen or not.

11. Efficiency of men and wage rate.

12. Size of job.

In addition to the above factors the cost of excess
excavation required to fill stump holes under embank-
ments must be taken into consideration.

Types of roots. Tap roots are the most difficult to
pull or blast. The long-leaf yellow pine of the south
is typical of this class. Hickory, white oak and black
gum also have tap roots.

Tap Root

Semi-iap roots are the most common variety. The
class includes white pine, poplar, chestnut, ash, walnut,
persimmon, sassafras, various varieties of oak and most
fruit trees.

COST ESTIMATING AND APPRAISING

Fig. 2. Semi-Tap Roots

Lateral root trees are less numerous than other kinds.
This class includes elm, soft maple, locust, hemlock, dog-
wood and elder. These three types of roots merge into
each other. Soil conditions also affect the form of root
growth so that an absolute classification is not possible.

Lateral Roots

Effect of Age on stumps. The following is from
Mr. J. E. Mattern's bulletin on "Clearing Land of
Stumps' ' :

Some stumps are durable and others will rot very
fast. White pine, Norway pine, locust and cedar stumps
will last fifty years without decaying enough to make
much difference in the work of their removal. Chestnut,
white oak and catalpa are nearly as durable. The other
oaks, poplar, ash, hemlock, hickory and gum rot so fast
that in a few years a team of horses can roll out stumps
of considerable size. A stump that does not sprout is
not getting any worse as time passes, but one that does
sprout is likely to be harder to take out each succeeding
season.

8 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

For accurate estimates of the cost of either clearing
or grubbing, the number of trees per acre should be
known approximately. If the trees are classified ac-
cording to size, more accurate estimating becomes pos-
sible. Much yet remains to be printed relative to clear-
ing and grubbing costs per tree of different kinds be-
fore an entirely inexperienced man can make a very
close estimate of costs per acre.

With different spacing of trees, assuming them to be
set at the comers of squares, the following table gives
the number of trees per acre:

TABLE I
Distance apart, feet Trees per acre

10 4.S6

12 302

14 222

16 170

18 134

20 109

25 70

30 48

40 27

50 17

In ordinai-ily dense woods there are 100 to 250 trees
per acre.

In chopping or sawing trees the amount of work
varies about as the square of the diameter. Hence as-
suming a 12-in. tree as unity, we have the following
ratios of cost of cutting down trees of different di-
ameters :

TABLE II

Jiameter,

Per cent of

Relative section

Inches

difficulty

to be cut

6

25

y*

8

44

Vi

12

100

1

18

225

2%

24

40O

4

30

625

6%

36

900

9

42

1225

12%

48

1600

16

Therefore the work done in cutting down a 48-in. tree
is 16 times as great as that on a 12-in. tree of the same

COST ESTIMATING AND APPRAISING 9

kind. If done entirely by hand, the total labor of clear-
ing away a 48-in. tree will be more than 16 times that
required by a 12-in. tree for the trunk will be longer
requiring to be cut into more sections before it can be
moved. Also trees of such large diameter are difficult
to handle with a cross-cut saw so that even the difficulty
of falling increases at a greater rate than the square
of the diameter.

Even a casual consideration of the significance of the
two foregoing tables will make clear the importance of
stating the number of trees of each size, per acre. It
does not suffice to say in a given case that the trees
ranged from 12 in. to 48 in. without indicating the ap-
proximate number of each size.

Nor is it satisfactory to state an average diameter. A
"weighted diameter" may be given that will serve for
cost estimating purposes. This is to be obtained by
multiplying the square of the diameter of each size of
tree by the number of trees of that size. The sum of
all the products so obtained is to be divided by the
total number of trees and the square root extracted.
This gives a "weighted diameter." In effect this is
equivalent to listing the number of trees of each size and
may not prove so satisfactory.

The quantity of timber on an acre is frequently stated
as so many thousand feet board measure, expressed M. ft.
B. M. The unit is a board 1 ft. square by 1 in. thick.
A cu. ft. of wood contains 12 ft. B. M. Various rules
exist for measuring or estimating the ft. B. M. in a saw
log. According to the Woodman's Handbook by Prof.
H. S. Graves published as bulletin 36 of the Bureau of
Forestry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington,
D. C, more than 30 different log rules are in use in the
United States. All these rules profess to provide means
for ascertaining the number of ft. B. M. which can be
sawn from a log of given diameter and length. This
bulletin compares the principal log rules.

Suggestions as to estimating costs of clearing and
grubbing. In Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 6,
1911, the author published the following:

Any one who has not seen the trees of western Wash-

10 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

ington and Oregon may find it difficult to believe that
clearing and grubbing has often cost more than $500
an acre in that section of the country. Yet on a re-
cently built electric railway along Puget Sound the
cutting of trees and yarding the logs on the right of way
ready for loading cost $280 per acre, and the subsequent
pulling of stumps, stacking and burning of all refuse on
the right of way cost $300 per acre, making a total of
$580 per acre for logging, clearing and grubbing.

'Mr. Harry Thomson states that there are 2,352,000
acres of logged-off land in "Washington, and 5.034,000
acres of standing merchantable timber. Probably not
less than 1,000,000 acres of the present logsjed-off land
would be in cultivation today were it possible to clear
and grub it cheaply. Data given by Mr. Thomson
indicate that this clearing and grubbing might average
a cost of $150 an acre, with present methods. But even
as low a cost as $100 an acre would mean the expenditure
of $100,000,000 to reclaim 40 per cent of the present
logged-off lands in Washington. When one realizes that
every dollar that can be eliminated from the cost per
acre of this work means a million dollars saved to the
community, the importance of this problem in engineer-
ing economics begins to loom large; and when it is ap-
preciated that adequate engineering investigation and
supervision may reduce the cost by $50 an acre, the
clearing and grubbing problem takes on the dignity of
the greatest of reclamation projects.

Mr. Thomson gives a table showing the number of
sticks of powder required to blast out stumps of different
diameters. We wish to call attention to the fact that
the amount of explosive varies almost exactly as the
square of the diameter of the stump. This is an ex-
ceedingly important fact, for it serves to indicate how
it may become possible to estimate with considerable
accuracy the cost of grubbing under any given condi-
tions. If we pause a moment to consider the matter,
we see that the resistance offered by a stump must vary
as some higher power of its diameter, and probably
about as the square thereof; for the cross- sectional area

COST ESTIMATING AND APPRAISING 11

of the wood in the tree itself varies as the square of the
diameter, and the area covered by the roots probably
varies in similar ratio. To saw down a tree 2 ft. in
diameter requires about 4 times the labor required on
a tree 1 ft. in diameter. To fell a 3-ft. tree requires
9 times the labor required on a 1-ft. tree. Similarly,
the amount of explosive needed to blow out the stump
will probably increase as the square of the diameter in-
creases. But it does not necessarily follow, of course,
that the labor of pulling stumps will increase in the
same ratio, for, by the use of a powerful stump pulling
device operated by an engine, it may take but little more
labor to pull a 2-ft. stump than it takes to pull one of
half that diameter.

In all likelihood, the strain that a stump puller should
develop should be proportionate to the square of the
diameter of the stump.

It is clear that no accurate estimate of the acre cost
of removing stumps can be made until at least two ele-
ments are known : (1) The number of stumps per acre,
and (2) the weighted diameter of the stumps. By
"weighted diameter" we do not mean the average di-
ameter, but the weighted average for cost estimating
purposes. To illustrate, suppose' there are 30 stumps
per acre, 20 of which measure 12 ins. in diameter at the
cut-off (all diameters should be given at the cut-off and
not at the ground level), and 10 of 30-in. diameter.
Then the average diameter would be calculated thus:

Total Diam.

20 at 12 ins = 240 ins.

10 at 30 ins '. =300 ins.

30 at 18 ins =540 ins.

If we assume that the cost of blasting stumps varies
as the square of the diameter, the weighted diameter for
cost estimating purposes is calculated thus:

Total Squared
Diam.

20 at ( 12 ins. X 12 ins. ) = 2,880

10 at (30 ins. X 30 ins.) = 9,000

30 at nearly (20 ins. X 20 ins.) = 11,880

12 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

This gives nearly 20 ins. as the weighted diameter for
cost estimating purposes.

Having estimated the number of stumps per acre and
their weighted diameter, it is possible to approximate
the cost of blasting them out. To this must be added
the cost of piling and burning them, which, it is al-
together probable, can be reduced to a unit cost per
stump of given size that will make accurate estimating
possible. Fallen logs may be estimated in cords of
wood per acre, and the cost of piling and burning them
may then become a matter of quite accurate forecast.

In estimating clearing and grubbing, as in estimating
any other costs, the primary object should be to measure
the work in units that are true functions of the cost.
By itself the acre of clearing and grubbing is not a
satisfactory unit for measuring costs. The thousand
feet board measure is a suitable unit in which to express
the cost of felling trees, making them into logs, and load-
ing onto cars, wagons, etc. The stump of a given size
is the proper unit in which to express the cost of grub-
bing stumps. The cord or cubic foot of wood may be a
suitable unit in which to express the cost of piling and
burning. Other units may be desirable. It is clear that
existing cost data on clearing and grubbing are defective,
for the most part, because they are not recorded in
proper units.

Effect of method of excavation on cost of grub-
bing. Engineering and Contracting, Dec. 25, 1907, gives
the following: One of the items of work to be done in
grading a railroad is generally the clearing and grub-
bing of the land. Under some contracts and specifica-
tions this work is paid for as one item, under others as
two items as clearing and as grubbing, while under other
forms of contracts this work is included in that of
excavation.

The method of paying for clearing by the acre as one
item and grubbing as another item is to be commended.
In order to do the excavation all the land must be cleared,
but in addition to the area used for the cuts and em-
bankments, the entire width of the right of way must
be cleared, and overhanging trees and branches must be

COST ESTIMATING AND APPRAISING 13

cut away. On the other hand there is no need of grub-
bing the area occupied by the embankments, nor that
on the right of way not included in the cuts, hence there
should be no reason why this area should be included in
the payment. Likewise the method of doing the excava-
tion will very materially effect the cost of the grubbing,
while it does not play any part in the cost of clearing.

When a steam shovel is used the grubbing cost is
small, as this machine will undermine the stumps, caus-
ing them to fall into the pit, where they can be loaded
onto the cars by means of chains, attached to the dipper
teeth. This work retards the progress made by the
shovel, but the cost of grubbing is greatly reduced, and
a contractor could afford to bid a low price on the
grubbing when done with a steam shovel, if it is not
lumped in with the clearing or other work.

When grubbing is done in connection with rock ex-
cavation, its cost is small as the stumps are shot out with
the blasting of the rock, and the only additional expense
is to dispose of the stump. This will have to be done
by hand and will be work that the contractor will charge
for under grubbing.

When grubbing is done for scraper work the stumps
and largest roots must be blasted and dug out, and the
work is much more expensive than with rock excavation
and steam shovel work, although a large railroad plow
in loosening the ground will cut and break up many of
the roots, so that they do not have to be grubbed.

The grubbing for elevating grader excavation must be
done much more thoroughly than that for scraper work.
The stumps and large roots must not only be grubbed,
but all the small bush stubs and roots must also be cut
out. This is necessary as the grader plow will not cut
these roots, as the pull on the plow is a steady one, unlike
that of a breaking plow, which can be run in jerks, while
the plowman can shake up the plow, which is a consider-
able help. In grubbing for a grader it is not advisable
to blast the stumps, as this makes large deep holes, which,
after rains, become full of water and soft, thus causing
the traction engine and grader to mire in these holes.
For this reason where there are many stumps of 6 ins.

14 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

or more in size a stump puller should be used. For
elevating grader work the stump puller does its work
much better than blasting, as it will not only pull up
the stump, but also all the large roots and many of the
small ones. Nor does it leaves as large a hole as a blast
does. Its works is as economical as blasting, and at
times is much cheaper. The small stubs and roots must
all be grubbed by hand. To do efficient work of grub-
bing for a grader, after the large stumps have been
pulled, men should be spaced a few feet apart and the
entire area gone over, the men working in rows grubbing
up everything that may effect the working of the grader.
This makes grader grubbing more expensive than that
of any other grubbing for ordinary excavation work.

Loss of material due to grubbing. Mr. F. W.
Harris, in Engineering News, Dec. 17, 1914, says that
in timber country 10% of the total excavation can be
considered as worthless, as it consists of humus, rock,
logs, roots, etc., and another 10% should be deducted
for quantities lost in blasting stumps. These percent-
ages should be increased to 15% in each instance where
excavation averages less than a 3-ft. cut. Percentages
also vary with the locality. In the Bitter Boot Moun-
tains in Idaho, they would be about 5 % ; while on the
western slope of the Cascades on the Washington and
British Columbia Coast, 15% would not be too high in
each case.

Estimating Shrinkage. F. W. Harris, in Engineering
News, Dec. 23, 1915, gives the following data:

The method of obtaining an estimate of shrinkage in
a timber country is as follows : Plot a trial grade line
on the profile, seeing that the quantities balance reason-
ably close. The excavation should exceed embankment
at least 10%. The profile will give the center cut and
fill, and an experienced man can stand on the center line
and estimate where the slopes will intersect the ground
line.

The stumps in each station should be noted and re-
corded according to sizes and kinds of stump, also the
formation of soil, whether rock, gravel or swamp. It is
essential to note the kind of stumps, as some stumps will

COST ESTIMATING AND APPRAISING 15

blow out much easier than others. For instance, a 4-ft.
fir stump will leave a smaller hole than a 4-ft. cedar
stump. This should be borne in mind merely as it would
be a useless refinement to grade the loss of excavation
by the kind of stump shot out. In the ofSce the stumps
should be listed according to cuts and fills.

The following table will apply on the Pacific North-
west Coast for computing loss of excavation by blowing
out stumps. Fir; cedar, spruce, hemlock are averaged
in the table.

6 to 12 in 1 cu. j'd. each

12 to 24 in 3 cu. yd. each

24 to 36 in 5 cu. yd. each

Above 36 in 10 cu. yd. each

In swamps where the growth is spruce, hemlock, cedar,
maple, 50% should be added to these quantities, as it
requires more dynamite to lift a stump of given size,
owing to the decreased resistance of the swamp soils.
To get shrinkage, say between Sta. 20 and 30, which
would average a 4-ft. cut on the center line for the
entire distance. Assuming the record shows the soil to
be clay and hardpan, and the list of stumps for this
section to total 65, divided as follows:

6 to 12 in 20 20 cu. yd.

12 to 24 in 20 60 cu. yd.

24 to 36 in 20 100 cu. yd.

Above 36 in 5 50 cu. yd.

65 230 cu. yd.

In this cut the grade line would have to be lower to
give the additional 230 cu. yds. lost in blasting. As the
same condition, however, is assumed to exist in the ad-
jacent fill, the grade line will give a correct balance.

The grubbing clause should be revised to include the
following :

All stumps and roots on the right-of-way to be grubbed v^ill
be paid for according to the list of sizes shown on the schedule
of quantities. Stumps 6 to 24 in. will be measured 4 ft. above
the ground, stumps over 24 in. diameter will be measured at the
butt log or on top of stump.

16 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

Estimating small tracts of standing timber. (Engi-
neering and Contracting, July 22, 1914.) The following
method of estimating- small tracts of timber is recom-
mended by the New York State College of Forestry :

(1) Count all the trees in a circle 118 ft. across;
1/4 acre. (2) Select a sample tree as nearly average as
you can. (3) Determine how much of the tree you can
saw (or use for any purpose) in 16-ft. logs (8-ft. logs
count as halves). (4) Add the top and bottom di-
ameters inside the bark, and divide by two. (Only solid
wood considered, bark excluded.) This will give you the
average diameter of the used length. (5) Square aver-
age diameter thus obtained, subtract 60, multiply by 0.8
and you will have the contents of an average 16-ft. log.
(6) Multiply by the number of logs in the tree and then
by 4 times the number of trees on your plot (since % acre
plot was used) and you will have the contents of that
acre in board feet. Example. — Basswood, 85 ft. total
height, can saw 40 ft. of it (21/2 logs). Top diameter
inside the bark, 10 ins. ; diameter of lower cut, inside the
bark, 20 ins. (average diameter 15 ins.). Fifteen
squared = 225; (225 — 60) X 0.8 = 132 ft. B. M. con-
tents of average log. 132 X 21/0 logs = 330 ft. B. M.
contents of tree. 10 trees on plot 330 X 40 = 13,200 ft.
B. M. per acre. By selecting 8 to 10 sample plots in
different parts of the tract the average stand per acre
may be found.

Appraisal of clearing and grubbing. Instructions
to Office and Field Engineers, bj' Engineering Commit-
tee of the President's Conference Committee on Federal
Valuation, gives the following:

Clearing and Grubbing. In determining the actual
quantities of clearing and grubbing the records should
be carefully examined and information thus obtained
supplemented by inquiries of residents and from in-
formation on the timber on the property adjacent to the
right of way.

Contract prices for clearing and grubbing rail-
ways. In building the Great Northern Ry. in Wash-
ington in the early 90 's contract prices for clearing
ranged from $28 an acre in the eastern part of the state

COST ESTIMATING AND APPRAISING 17

to $140 in the ■western part. Grubbing contracts were
let by the "station" of 100 ft. long and as wide as
excavated cut, the prices ranging from $14 a station in
the eastern part to $25 a station in the western part.
In estimating the cost of reproducing the 768 miles of
Great Northern line in 1907, I allowed an average price
of $100 an acre for clearing, $20 a station for grubbing,
and $2 a tree for cutting dangerous trees alongside the
right of way, and the total of these items averaged $914
per mile of railway line. This, it should be noted, is in a
country where some very heavy clearing was en-
countered.

In estimating the reproduction cost of 1,645 miles of
Northern Pacific Ry. line in Washington, I used almost
the same prices, and the total was $867 per mile. On
the other hand my estimate of the clearing and grubbing
item on the 500 miles of Oregon, Railway & Navigation
Co. lines amount to only $65 per mile, for those lines
were mainly in a treeless country.

In building the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul lines
in Washington, in 1906, the contract prices were $40 to
$300 per acre for clearing, the average being $120; and
the price for grubbing ranged from $10 to $20 per
station, the average being $15. During the same period
the contract prices on the double-tracking of the Port-
land and Seattle Ry. were $25 an acre for clearing and
$1.50 a sq. rd. for grubbing. Since there are 160 sq. rds.
to the acre, the $1.50 price is equivalent to $240 per acre
for grubbing, a not unusual price for grubbing very
large trees.

In the appraisal of railway lines in Texas, in 1906,
the prices for clearing and grubbing were $25 to $50
per acre.

In the appraisal of the railways in Nebraska, n 1909,
Mr. E. C. Hurd estimated $20 per acre for clearing and
$50 per acre for grubbing.

Contract price grubbing and clearing 15 acres for
locks and dam No. 17, Black Warrior River, Alabama,
$100 per acre. (Prof. Memoirs, May-June, 1915.)

Contract prices on the Haines-Pleasant Camp Road,
Alaska: Heavy clearing, $125; light clearing, $100;

18 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

grubbing, $50 per acre (earth, excav., 38 ct. per cu. yd.).

Trautwine gives $50 as average cost of clearing and
grubbing right of way for a railroad when wEiges are
$1.75 per day. Merriman gives $25 to $75 per acre, not
stating the rate of wages.

Railroad valuation by the interstate commerce com-
mission. The following are taken from protests against
their valuation filed with the Interstate Commerce Com-
mission :

Protest hy the New Orleans, Texas and Mexico R. R.

Price used Price claimed

by Commission by Co.

Clearing 1148 acres $45 $45

Grubbing 381 acres $5a $60

Protest by the Texas Midland R. R.

Clearing 354 acres $25 $35

Grubbing 42 acres $40 $52

Clearing road at Palatka, Fla. {Engineering and
Contracting, May 3, 1911.) The annual report (1910)
of Logan Waller Page, Director, U. S. OfSce of Public
Eoads, states that in building a new road 5,000 ft. long
through forest, 400 trees and stumps were grubbed at a
cost of $233.11.

CHAPTER II

SPECIFICATIONS

Criticism of clearing and grubbing specifications.

(Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 11, 1907.)
Specifications frequently contain paragraphs that at first
glance seem customary and extremely innocent, when in
reality there is a "negro hid in the brush pile." The
following clause is copied from a set of specifications for
railroad construction in the south :

"The surface of the ground to be excavated, and
places where embankments occur not exceeding 2 ft. in
height, shall be (between slope stakes) grubbed free from
stumps, roots, brush and other perishable material as
directed by the engineer. ' '

The clause covering the grubbing under low embank-
ments is one that is in common usage, but the beginning
of the paragraph can cause trouble.

Railroad excavation, when it is earth, is commonly
done with scrapers, elevating graders or steam shovels.
When the first two methods are used, the contractor, in
order to work either his scraper or his grader, must first
grub the ground free from all stumps and roots. It is a
different story when a steam shovel is operated. Then
the shovel can dig up the stumps and load them on the
cars as a part of the earth excavation. Should the en-
gineer and contractor have a disagreement, and the en-
gineer wish to put the "screws" on the contractor, such
a clause affords him opportunity. Under it he can order
the contractor to grub the ground before the steam
shovel goes to work.

In like manner advantage can be taken of the con-
tractor in rock cuts. Instead of waiting to blast the
stumps out as the rock is excavated, the grubbing not

19

20 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

only of stumps but also of roots can be ordered done by
the engineer prior to the rock blasting.

"The surface of the ground to be excavated" will be
made free from stumps and roots, no matter whether
anything is said about it in tlie specifications or not, for
the contractor can not escape doing so. This being so,
it is superfluous to specify clearing, grubbing between
the slope stakes, unless it is the intention to remove all
vegetable matter from the materials that are to be used
in making embankments. On railroad work it is not cus-
tomary to remove sod or small roots from embankments
or from the surface of ground to be covered by embank-
ments, yet, under the strict letter of this specification a
contractor can be compelled to do both.

It may be replied that no reasonable engineer would
attempt to enforce the letter of this specification, but if a
specification serves any useful purpose it is to specify,
leaving nothing in doubt, nothing dependent upon the
"reasonableness" of any one. In matters of this kind
it is just as easy to be specific as it is to be vague, and
far more satisfactory to all concerned, since all chance
for quibble is removed.

Another point that is not always covered definitely is
the matter of payment for grubbing. "Where steam
shovels are used it is becoming the custom not to pay for
grubbing; but, unless the specification distinctly states
that grubbing will not be paid for in steam shovel
cuts, it is probable that a contractor could collect pay-
ment.

Ambiguous specifications of the sort under discussion
foment trouble sooner or later, and cause some one an
unexpected loss not merely of temper but of money.

Methods of paying for grubbing and clearing. The
following is taken from a discussion by the author in the
construction news supplement of Engineering News,
Jan. 14, 1904 : There are, in common use, three methods
of paying for grubbing and clearing: (1) By the acre;
(2) by the lump sum; and (3) by inclusion within the
price paid per cubic yard- for excavation. The lump
sum method is perhaps to be preferred where the area to
be cleared is comparatively small and where no material

SPEOIFICATrONS 21

changes in location of work are probable. Thus the
clearing of a small reservoir site, whose location is defi-
nitely fixed, may well be paid for by the lump sum.
Similarly in road improvement (not through a new coun-
try), either method (2) or method (3) may be used.

Where the clearing forms a very considerable item,
however, and especially where the alinement or the
grade of a road, railroad or canal, is likely to be changed
after awarding the contract, payment by the acre should
be specified. To do so, in the first place, gives a basis
upon which the engineer can make his monthly estimates,
without any chance for serious dispute as to equitable
partial payments. But what is perhaps of greater im-
portance is the fact that any increase or decrease in the
area cleared is provided for where a unit price exists.
Moreover, to call for bids on clearing and grubbing by
the acre gives the engineer definite information as to
what contractors have found such work to cost, and thus
enables closer estimates of similar work in the future.
Where the grubbing and clearing is included in the price
bid for the earthwork, it is evident that earth taken from
shallow cuts, well covered with brush and trees, will be
bid in at what appears to be an abnormally high price ;
while on the other hand, if the cuts are deep the price
per cubic yard will be much lower, since the total cost of
grubbing and clearing distributed over a large yardage
makes a very small additional cost per yard. If after
the award of a road contract the grade line is raised or
lowered for a long distance, and the yardage materially
changed the contractor will have a just claim for a change
in his unit price in earth where clearing and grubbing is
included in the price paid for cut or fill.

In our last week's issue a correspondent raised a ques-
tion that has caused disputes before and will cause dis-
putes again, unless the standard wording of clearing and
grubbing clauses be modified. The clause in question
reads :

Clearing and grubbing shall be paid for by the acre of actual
area cleared.

Evidently such a clause makes no provision for single

22 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

trees. Not long ago a specification was sent to this office
in which provision was made for this contingency, by
specifying the exact amount that would be paid for re-
moving single trees.
The clause reads :

For Removing Trees:

6 ins. or less in diameter $1.50 each

6 ins. to 12 ins. in diameter 3.00 each

12 ins; and over in diameter 5.00 each

There are, of course, large trees whose removal costs
much more than $5 each, and where many such trees
occur the sliding scale of prices should be extended.

While discussing the subject of grubbing and clear-
ing, we may go a step farther and point out the desirabil-
ity in many cases of having two separate items, one of
clearing, and the other of grubbing, to be paid for sep-
arately. "Where stumps are to be covered with a railroad
embankment of any considerable height, it is usually
sufficient to close-cut them, and do no grubbing at all.
But, of course, where excavation is to be made, the
stumps must be taken out. On steam shovel work the
stumps are not ordinarily grubbed out by hand or with
powder, but are removed by the steam shovel as they are
encountered. But on scraper work, stumps, and brush
roots especially, are so great a hindrance to rapid work
that their prior removal is an economic necessity. Often
the removal of brush roots adds several cents per cubic
yard to the cost of excavation.

Enough has been said to indicate the desirability of
specifying payment by the acre for clearing, and by the
acre for grubbing, rather than by any other method on
extensive work; and provision should be made in the
specifications to cover the cost of single tree removal.
Very often, however, specifications are not very clear as
to how much or how large brush shall be, to constitute
clearing and grubbing. A little study of the local con-
ditions will enable the engineer to designate clearly what
he intends to include or exclude, and in some cases it is
well to mark on the plans the areas that are included
as clearing and grubbing areas,

SPECIFICATIONS 23

Custom as to payment for clearing and grubbing.

(From a letter published in Engineering News, Jan. 14,
1904). The clearing and grubbing should not be com-
bined. The area cleared is seldom the same as that
grubbed. The specifications generally confine the grub-
bing to excavations and under embankments of less than
2 ft. depth. Grubbing for borrow pits on right of way
is at the contractor's expense. It is one of those things
that is put in to get something for nothing, viz., the
railway company expects the price of clearing to be no
higher if the grubbing is included.

It has been a custom to estimate full clearing when
the branches of trees touch; and if there are isolated
trees the area covered by vertical lines from tips of
branches is generally a fair measure of ground cleared,
and with the "combined" specification it also pays for
the grubbing. With the small tree, the area covered
being less, it equalizes the smaller expense of removing
the stump.

What constitutes an acre of actual area cleared.
Mr. Thos. H. Mather, in a letter published in Engineer-
ing News, Jan. 14, 1904, makes the following statements :
Under the specification that "grubbing and clearing
shall be paid for by the acre of the actual area cleared, ' '
any timber growing in such contiguity as in a grove,
orchard or woods, irrespective of how close the timber
was standing, if only the line and limits of the growth
were well defined, should be. classed as clearing.

Second, the area allowed for an isolated tree should
depend on the size of the tree and what in the Engineer 's
opinion would be a fair price for its removal. I should
take the circumstances into consideration and give such
an area in isolated trees as the facts warranted. For
instance, if an isolated tree, in my opinion, cost $10 to
remove, and the price for clearing was $100 per acre,
I should allow one-tenth of an acre; if another isolated
tree cost 15 cts. to remove I should take no notice of it.
If in continuous woods the contractor lost or made money
on the clearing I should feel that he was working under
the specification pure and simple, and that I had no
option but to give him the area within the defined lines.

24 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

An interesting legal decision relating to clearing
and grubbing is reported to Engineering News, Jan. 14,
1904, by Mr. Woolsey Finnell. The following is an ab-
abstract of his letter: On resuming construction of the
Montgomery Division of the M. & 0. R. R- between
Tuscaloosa and Montgomery, Ala., in 1897, a dispute
arose between the sub-contractor and contractor regard-
ing what constituted a station of clearing and grubbing.
The right of way for that part of the railroad had been
cleared and 75% of the grading had been completed in
1890 and 1891. During the intervening six years the
right of way had grown up in briers, vines and brush
which together with a few isolated tree stumps and logs
on the uncompleted sections of the road constituted the
clearing. The contractor who was completing the road
for a lump sum gave the sub-contractor estimates of from
% to Ys clearing for the work done on the previously
completed sub-grade. The sub-contractor brought suit
for ' ' full clearing ' ' obtaining a favorable decision. The
following is an abstract of the decision of the court:
' ' The court holds that where any clearing has to be done
on any station (of 100 ft.), it shall be estimated as clear-
ing, and the court further holds that the size or num-
ber of trees, bushes, briers, etc., cut from any station
does not have any bearing on the ease, the specifications
setting forth that clearing and grubbing shall be paid
for when it is actually done. ' ' The court also ruled that
100 ft. should be used as a basis of measurement because
it was proved by all the witnesses, both for the plaintiffs
and the defense, that 100 ft. was the customary unit used
in estimating clearing. The court rendered its verdict
in favor of the plaintiffs and ordered estimates made ac-
cordingly.

Although this case involved more than $23,000 no ap-
peal was taken and the award of the court was promptly
paid.

Road specifications. Frye, in his Civil Engineers'
Pocketbook, quotes the following from Road Specifica-
tions used in Alleghany County, Pa. : Clearing. Trees,
stumps, bushes, roots, etc., to be removed and no perish-
able matter allowed under embankments.

SPECIFICATIONS 25

Instructions for Preliminary "Work issued by the De-
partment of the State Engineer, New York 1903, gives
the following :

Clearing. The item of clearing shall include the re-
moval of all trees, bushes, stumps, decayed or growing
vegetable matter above the surface of the ground.

GrubUng. The item of grubbing will include the re-
moval of all vegetable matter below the surface of the
ground over areas upon which embankments are to be
built. Grubbing will only be estimated on areas on
which embankment or backfill is to be placed.

Better highway specifications for clearing and grub-
bing. The following, by F. W. Harris, is taken from
Engineering Ne^cs, Dec. 23, 1915 :

The following clauses are the usual highway specifica-
tion for grubbing:

All stumps, roots, logs and other obstructions shall be grubbed
out and removed from all places where embankments occur less
than 3 feet in height; also where excavations occur less than 3
feet in depth, and from such other places as the engineer may
direct.

AH material so grubbed out shall be destroyed in the manner
specified.

Grubbing shall be paid for by the acre or fraction of an acre.
The area within the limits of the slope stakes, whenever grubbing
shall have been done thereon by the contractor, shall be estimated
only upon cuts up to 3 feet in depth, and under embankments of 3
feet or less in height, and upon uniform ditches wherever the en-
gineer may direct.

This is the old railroad specification. It answered the
railroad purpose well enough, for grubbing is but a
detail in that class of work, owing to the heavy cuts and
fills and the much narrower width of roadbed. It is
only with the wide roadways and "scratch work" of
roadbuilding that grubbing comes to the front as an
important factor.

Grubbing has been estimated and paid for in at least
four different ways — by lump sum, station, acreage, and
square rod. All these methods are founded on approxi-
mate estimates. The lump sum was the easiest way
adopted on small jobs where the contractor was in a
position to make a fairly close estimate. Grubbing by

26

CLEAEING AND GRUBBING

the station was one way of payment used by the rail-
roads where the cut and fill was under 3 ft. By the
present system grubbing is paid for by the acre or
fraction thereof.

Such a clause as the above has been interpreted in two
different ways: One way is shoAvn in Pig. 4 as X,
which gives a measurement of 14 ft. This method is
close and very unfair. Others use a full width between
the slope stakes, shown as Y. This gives a measurement
of 42 ft., which is more fair and liberal for the following
reason: Frequently there is a stump on the slope line
(stump A) which the engineer wants removed for the
sake of appearance. The same reason will apply for
grubbing out the stump C. Also in both cases the
stumps are within the 3-ft. limit. Even using the Y
method of computing acreage, in nine cases out of ten
the grubbing will be done at a loss to the contractor.

'Z4'Roaet

•H
EI.^-6.0
22.0

Fig. 4. Road Cross-Section Showing How Grubbing Specifications
May Be Interpreted

The present system of estimating the cost of grubbing
for highways results in almost endless confusion and
wild guessing, both on the part of the engineer in his
estimate and the contractor in bidding. On one large
highway contract involving the construction of 25 mi.
of mountain road, bids on grubbing ranged from $100
to $300 per acre. The $100 man did not have the least
idea of what he was doing. The $300 man figured a
profit on the grubbing. In this case $200 was about
right, as the grubbing was heavy and in addition to this
there was a long and expensive haul to get powder.

The acrccige of grubbing in the present estimates of

SPECIFICATIONS 27

quantity shows only the amount of grubbing that comes
within the specification, and not what the contractor will
actually be required to do. The engineer does not know
the actual amount that the contractor will have to do;
neither does the contractor, hence we have wildcat bid-
ding on grubbing and no cost data on the subject that
are worth a moment's consideration.

To remedy this condition the contractor should receive
payment for every stump removed, regardless of the
depth of cut or height of fill. He is entitled to be paid
for grubbing stump B, as much as for grubbing stump E.
The idea that stump B will cave in with the excavation is
a fallacy, as this course is never adopted on construction
work, for when a contractor is organized to shovel earth
he does not want to break into the scheme to handle
stumps.

The system of paying for grubbing by acreage must be
abandoned and the stumps graded according to size. A
convenient and practicable grading of sizes runs from 6
to 12 in., 12 to 24 in., 24 to 36 in., and above 36 in.
No grubbing should be paid for on anything smaller than
6 in. Stumps from 6 to 24 in. should be measured 4 ft.
from the ground. Stumps over 24 in. should be meas-
ured at the butt log. It would be impossible to measure
large redwood, cypress and cedar stumps "breast high."

In the schedule of quantities submitted to contractors
the stumps would be listed like the following :

100— 6 to 12 in. 150—24 to 36 in.

125 — 12 to 24 in. 200--above 36 in.

The contractor would then know just exactly what he
has to bid on and what he has to move. He will be paid
for every stump handled. It would be but a short time
before grubbing would be standardized in price accord-
ing to different localities, which would result in closer
estimates of final cost.

There is another feature of grading stumps which
makes it a valuable aid in making preliminary estimates,
especially for those to be let on a lump-sum basis. The
majority of engineers refuse to allow waste in any quan-
tity to show on the profiles. This results in too close

28 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

a theoretical balance, as the percentage of shrinkage is
nearly always underestimated. Consequently the ex-
cavations will not make the embankments. A sag has to
be put in the fill, or if earth is borrowed there is a bill
of "extras" which makes the lump-sum bid almost use-
less.

Reservoir and dam specifications. Merriman, in the
"American Civil Engineers' Pocketbook," gives the fol-
lowing on clearing reservoir sites:

Soil Stripping. In order to prevent the growths of
algae reservoir sites are sometimes cleaned by removing
the vegetation and top soil. This practise has been fol-
lowed extensively in Massachusetts reservoirs. It results
in a temporary benefit, but ultimately deposits of ma-
terial occur on the bottom that contain as much organic
matter as that found in the soil, and the advantage of
stripping it lost. The organic matter that has the
greatest effect on the quality of impounding waters is
derived from grass, weeds and other vegetation on the
reservoir site. This should be removed by cutting and
burning just before the reservoir is filled. For the sake
of appearance and to prevent growths of water weeds
and filamentous algae the shores of the reservoir from 2
to 5 ft. vertically above the high-water mark and for 10
to 20 ft. below, according to circumstances, should be
cleared of stumps and roots. Elsewhere the stumps
should be cut to 12 in. or less above the mean surface of
the ground.

Specifications for Hudson water works. (H. K.
Bishop, Ch. Bngr., and C. C. Vermeule, Consult. Eng.)

Grubbing and Clearing. The contractor will be re-
quired to g-rub and clear the entire surface of the re-
servoir to a level of 4 ft. above the flow line of all trees,
stumps, brush, fencing, and rubbish, and he shall cut all
grass or other vegetable matter close to the ground.

Specifications for construction of, subsiding and
coagulating basins. Richmond, Va., 1903.

Excavation. The work to be done consists of all the
clearing, grubbing and removal of every description over
the site of the work. All such rubbish shall be removed
entirely from the location of the proposed work. The

SPECIFICATIONS 29

contractor, along the site of the proposed embankments,
shall remove the loam or sandy soil to such depth as the
Superintendent' may direct before commencing.

Specifications for municipal water works system
for the Village of Poland, N. Y. (W. G. Stone & Son,
Engrs.)

Specification for dam. This dam will be constructed
of earth with clay core wall as shown on plans. In be-
ginning construction the contractor will thoroughly grub
and clear such portion of the original ravine banks as
will be covered by the dam, removing all sod, tree roots,
stumps, stones, etc., and thoroughly break up the surface
by plowing or otherwise so that the dam material as
deposited therein will thoroughly mix and blend with
the original earth.

Clearing and grubbing specifications, Bartlesville
Water Co., 1904. The work to be done under this head-
ing contemplates the clearing and removal of all trees,
brushes, shrubs and debris of every nature, from that
portion of the site included lying and situated on the west
bank of Caney Creek, 260 x 300 ft. in size. Stakes set by
the engineer will show the limits of said tract. All trees
felled must be taken down in such a manner that no
stumps shall be left and so no portion of the tree shall
protrude for more than six inches above the natural sur-
face of the ground.

All brush must be burned and the bodies of all trees
must be cut in leugths not to exceed 13 ft. and piled as
the engineer may direct.

That space of ground to be covered by the reservoirs,
pump pit and pump house must be prepared as follows :

By removal of all stumps, roots and vegetable growth,
by the removal down to an acceptable hard clay bottom
of all material found thereon. The material removed
must be wasted below the plant site at a place designated
by the engineer.

Specifications for an earth dam built at McAlester,
Okla., in 1912.

Clearing and gruiiing. The entire surface covered
by thb earthen embankment and spillway shall be cleared
of all trees, brush and shrubs, and all these shall be

so CLEARlNO AND GRUBBING

grubbed out not less than 2 ft. below the surface of the
ground and in a manner satisfactory to the engineer.
All rock shall be removed to such depth as the engineer
may direct, and deposited at a place designated by
him.

Stripping. The area to be covered by the embank-
ment shall be stripped by plowing and scraping, to a
depth of 6 ins., and the soil, when suitable, stacked at
some convenient point below the dam, to be later used
as directed by the engineer.

Dam enibankment. The first step in building the dam
embankment will be to thoroughly fill all holes made by
stump grubbing, rock blasting, etc., with puddled clay,
well wetted, mixed and tamped into place, up to the level
of the stripped surface. And by the removal of all loose
material, rock, etc., found in the water courses of the
creek, down to an acceptable hard clay or rock foun-
dation, and within such limits beyond the extreme lines
of the embankment as the engineer may direct ; and by
filling said water courses with suitable material, satis-
factory to the engineer, in layers not to exceed 10 ins.,
solidly compacted by tamping up to the level of the
stripped surface.

After the stump holes have been puddled full, the em-
bankment proper shall be begun by plowing up the
stripped surface in furrows 6 ins. deep, spaced not more
than 24 ins. Upon the surface thus plowed shall be
placed earth taken from the valley and hillsides as
directed by the engineer, and not nearer than 100 ft.
from the toe of the slope of the dam, in a first horizontal
layer not to exceed 9 ins. in loose thickness. This shall be
thoroughly wetted and rolled with a grooved roller (ap-
proved by the engineer) capable of giving a compression
of 125 lbs. per lin. in. of roller face.

The earthly materials used in the construction of the
embankment shall be free from roots, sticks and stones
of size that might be injurious to the structure, and shall
in every detail be subject to the approval or the rejection
of the engineer. A sufficient quantity of the surface
earth from the borrow pits shall be deposited at such
places as the engineer may direct for the purpose of top-

SPECIFICATIONS 31

dressing the top of the dam and the outer and inner
slopes.

Specifica,tions from Contract No. 3, Board of Water
Supply of City of New York, for building the main
dams for the Ashokan Reservoir. Clearing. Item 37.
The sites of embankments and such adjoining areas as
directed shall be cleared of all buildings and fences,
and all trees, bushes, logs, stumps, high grass, weeds and
rubbish. These materials shall be burned or otherwise
disposed of as directed.

Wood and hay may be cut by the contractor on desig-
nated areas and wood and hay so cut shall be his prop-
erty.

All trees on the sites of the Dam and the dikes, within
the lines of the structures, shall be cut and the stumps
entirely removed. Roots, 1 inch or more in diameter,
shall be grubbed as directed.

The areas to be paid for shall be those from which
all incumbrances as herein provided shall have been
removed as ordered. Payment will be made but once
for any given area regardless of how many times it
may be found necessary to go over the area in order
to leave it at the completion of this contract in a con-
dition in accordance with the specifications. The price
stipulated in Item 37 shall include the cost of clearing
the areas of all incumbrances, the disposing of all ma-
terials, and all expenses incidental thereto.

Other specifications. Mr. W. D. Taylor, in Engineer-
ing News, April 7, 1904, gives the following : The price
bid for clearing on this line will be understood to apply
only to the densest, heaviest and most extensive clearing
on the line. All clearing requiring less work and ex-
pense shall be rated by the engineer. Thus if in the
judgment of the engineer the work and expense neces-
sary to clear a certain acre of right of way is only one-
quarter as much as that necessary to clear one acre of
the densest and heaviest timber then that certain acre
shall be entered on the contractor's clearing account as
14 of an acre.

E. H. Beckler, in commenting on above, submits the
following :

32 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

Clearing will be done to the full width of the right
of way and will be estimated by the station. A station
consists of 100 ft. in length by 100 ft. in width. Extra
width will be equated into stations as above defined.

Clearing will include the removal of all perennial
plants, not including briers. Any cutting within the
limits of the station stakes constitutes a station of clear-
ing.

Clearing and grubbing clauses under railroad
grading in Civil Engineering Specifications and Con-
tracts by Ashbridge., Clearing. The lands of the
railroad company shall be cleared to the full extent of
the right of way of all trees, logs, bushes, and other
perishable matter, which shall be destroyed by burning
or d,epasited in heaps as the engineers may direct.
Large trees must be cut not more than 1 ft. from the
ground and under embankments less than 4 ft. high.
They shall be cut even with the ground. The top of
stumps shall not be less than 3 ft. below sub-grade under
embankments. All small trees and bushes shall be cut
even with the ground. The burning of brush must be
done in such a manner as not to endanger adjacent
timber, land or property. Clearing shall be paid for by
the acre or fraction thereof to the extent indicated by
the engineer by stakes or by marks on the ground or
timber. All trees which the engineer may reserve shall
be stripped of their tops and branches cut to such lengths
and be neatly piled at such places as the engineer may
direct.

Grubbing. All stumps, roots, muck and perishable
material shall be grubbed out and removed from all
places where embankments occur less than 2 ft. in height.
All stumps grubbed out shall be burned. Until the
contractor is notified that the work done on the surface
to be grubbed is satisfactory to the engineer, no em-
bankment shall be made on such surface. Grubbing is
to be paid for by the acre or fraction thereof actually
grubbed.

American Railway Engineering Association Manual
1911. Clearing. The right of way and stations

SPECIFICATIONS 33

grounds except any portion thereof that may be re-
served shall be cleared of all trees, brush and perishable
materials of whatsoever nature.

All these materials, except as hereinafter mentioned,
shall be burned or otherwise removed from the ground,
as may be directed, and without injury to adjoining
property.

Where clearing is to be done, stumps shall be cut
close to the ground not higher than the stump top di-
ameter for twelve (12) inches, and less in diameter and
not higher than eighteen (18) inches for trees whose
stump top diameter exceeds twelve (12) inches except
between slope stakes of embankments where stumps may
be cut so that the depths of filling over them shall not
be less than two and one-half (21/2) ft.

The work of clearing shall Idc kept at least one
thousand (1000) ft. in advance of grading.

All trees which may be reserved shall be stripped
of their tops and branches made into ties, or cut to such
lengths as may be directed and neatly piled at such
places on the right of way as may be designated, for
which service payment shall be made by the tie or by
the cord of one hundred and twenty-eight (128) cu.
ft.

In localities where isolated trees and buildings
exist payment shall be made for their removal at a price
to be agreed upon.

Measurement of clearing and payment for the same
shall be by units of one hundred (100) ft. square or
a fraction thereof actually cleared.

Grit-hiing. Stumps shall be grubbed entirely from
all places where excavations occur, including ground
from which material is to be borrowed, as well as from
ditches, new channels for waterways and other places
where required.

Grubbing shall also be required between the slope
stakes of all embankments of less than two and one-half
(21/2) ft. in height.

The work of grubbing shall be kept at least three
hundred (300) ft. in advance of grading.

34 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

Measurement of grubbing shall be measured upon
all excavation actually done, and the space to be covered
by all embankments of less than two and one-half (2%)
ft. in height. Payment for the same shall be by units
of one hundred (100) ft. square or fraction thereof ao-
tually grubbed.

CHAPTER III

CLEARING

Land clearfng practice. The following is given by
Mr. M. J. Thompson in Bulletin 163 of the University
of Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station: The
tools commonly used are the ax, the brush scythe or
brush hook, and the cross-cut saw. Care must be taken
in selecting an ax for brushing work. A wide blade is
preferable as the wear comes mostly at the two extremes
with very little at the center. The ax must be ground
to meet this condition and finally a rounded edge results,
giving much less cutting surface, and thus limiting the
efficiency of the operator. The weight should be not
less than 3%^ lbs.

In the first brushing of the land the ax is usually a
much better tool to use than the scythe. The brush
must be cut close to the ground in order to simplify the
work of keeping it down in later j-ears. Care should
be taken to avoid leaving sharp snags. Low, blunt snags
make seeding easier and are easier for the horses' feet.
The ax is the better tool with which to secure these re-
sults, though not always so rapid as the scythe. This
can be used to advantage on the second growth.

It is generally believed that the best time to cut brush
is in the late summer or early fall, as at that time the
sap is not yet started in the root system for winter stor-
age and the plant can be killed more easily. August is
the month usually recommended, although good results
were obtained in September and even as late as October.
It is advantageous to cut before the leaves fall, as they
facilitate burning.

Different plans are followed in burning brush. Many
advocate burning when the brush is cut. A fire is
started and the brush is thrown on it as rapidly as it
is cut. Others recommend cutting and leaving in piles

35

36

CLEARING AND GRUBBING

of about an armful, and later burning in a central pile.
When land was logged immediately following brushing,
the following plan was found the most advantageous and
economical. The brush was carefully piled so that all
lay the same way. It was left to settle and dry some-
what before the logging slashings were available and
both were burned at the same time. The care, or lack
of it, exercised in piling the brush is an important factor
in determining the final cost of the work. Disposing of

Double Bit Axes Made by Collins and Co., Hartford,
Conn.; Weights 3 to 6 lbs.

the dead-and-down material and windfalls is often a
problem, as they are usually wet. That which would
readily be handled was burned first and the rest was
sawed into proper lengths for a team to handle and
later piled as a base for burning stumps.

The height at which trees should be cut is debatable.
As the wood left in stumps is wasted, the trees should
be cut off as low as possible. On the other hand, the
taller stump is more easily removed by team or puller.
This is a matter of prime importance where a stump-
puller is used, and considerably less so if dynamite is
used.

Stumps are burned in different ways. Where dyna-
mite has been used to good effect, and the stumps are
well shattered and thrown out of the ground, they are
sometimes left until they are thoroughly dry. Fires are

CLEARING

37

then started and the pieces are gathered together and
thrown on the fire as rapidly as they are collected.
However, this presupposes a good job of blasting, all
the parts loose if not removed.

Types of axes. Pig. 5 gives a good illustration of
the difference in chopping edges of axes.

The ax shown to the left of the cut is known as the
Yankee pattern; its short rounded edge makes it suit-

llAU'l'FOItli Z^^^'

'.. ^^^ EACH TOOL IFYlM/i
; 1VAM-T1IC(;I-.NLIMWJ|1?^

Fig. 6. Single-Bit Chopping Axes Made by Collins and Co.,
Hartford, Conn.; Weights, 2 to 7 lbs.

able for splitting, but not for chopping. The California
Reversible Ax in the center and the Michigan Ax on
the right have larger cutting edges' and are more suit-
able for chopping. The Michigan ax, because of the
rounded cutting edge on the side toward the handle, is
specially adapted to lopping branches from fallen trees
where many blows are struck under handed. Fig. 6
shows two single-bit axes which are well shaped for
chopping.

Machetes and brush hooks. In tropical America the
machete is universally used for all kinds of cutting. It
is a long knife sharp enough to be used in cutting grass

38

CLEARING AND GRUBBING

SJ. -' ' ■■^-.jSr-tj'r-

7

Fig. 7. Machetes Made by Collins and Co., Hartford, Conn.;
Lengths from 10 in. to 28 in. Available

and other fodder and heavy enough for cutting trees
up to 6 or 8 ins. in diameter. It is an admirable tool for
clearing' away vines> brush and saplings and where
thorny vines, cactus, or briers are to be cut it is by far
the best tool known.

Fig. 8 shows various types of brush hooks. These are
handled and used like an ax, but are only suitable for
cutting small trees, saplings and vines. They are of
little use in clearing away briers.

CLEARING

39

Fig. 8. Various Types of Brush Hooks

Methods and costs of clearing in Minnesota. Bul-
letin 163 of the University of Minnesota Agricultural
Experiment Station, hy M. J. Thompson, gives some
valuable data on methods and costs of preparing cut-
over timber lands for farming purposes, as follows:

Fifteen acres of cut-over timber land were divided
into three tracts of five acres each. On Tract I the
clearing was forced with dynamite. On Tract II the
stumps were first split with small charges of dynamite
and then pulled with a machine. Tract III, after being
brushed out, was seeded to clover and timothy for pas-
turage, and clearing with dynamite was postponed five
years, until 1918. Although the work on Tract III is
not completed, the general results are of such a nature
as to warrant publication for the benefit of those who
may be wrestling with the clearing problem.

The conclusions thus far arrived at may be stated
tersely as follows:

40 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

1. Cost and method are determined largely by the
character of the soil and the kind of vegetation.

2. The returns in forest products, cordwood, pole
wood, fence posts, and saw logs cover the cost of brush-
ing and other clearing work up to the stumping stage.

3. The cost per stump for blasting and pulling on
Tract II was almost identical with the cost of explosives
alone on Tract I.

4. The cost of clearing was much less on Tract I, since
much less labor was required in piling and burning the
stumps.

5. The cost per stump for removal was least for the
man-power machine, slightly greater for the horse-
power machine, and greatest for dynamite. (This was
for green timber and did not include the cost of piling,
which makes the use of dynamite the cheapest method
by a good margin.)

6. Some relation may apparently be established be-
tween the size of the stump and the size of the charge
required to remove it.

7. The man-power puller has a limited field where
the conditions correspond to those at the Northeast
Station. It works to best advantage on the small new
farm where the farmer has very limited means.

8. Although the work is still incomplete, it is evident
that, under conditions existing on the average farm in
the region of the Station, dynamite is usually to be
preferred to the stump-puller, either alone or in com-
bination. However, the plan of clearing being followed
on Tract III will not only be carried out at a lower cost
as predicted, but is actually giving a larger net return
in pasturage the first year than has been realized from
the first crops from land on which the clearing has been
forced. This is because forced clearing requires more
labor, and because land cleared by this method is rela-
tively lacking in humus, which curtails yields.

9. The method depends on conditions. There is no
one best method for all conditions.

10. Following the removal of stumps from cut-over
timber lands, on account of the shallow covering of
vegetable matter, care should be taken to plow shallow

CLEAKING 41

the first time and to take immediate steps to increase
the humus by seeding the land to clover and grasses,
using barley or oats for a nurse crop.

The work from which these deductions were made was
done on land which averaged more than 200 stumps to
the acre. These had a diameter of about 12 inches at the
base and 10 inches at the cut-off. Sixty per cent of the
timber was green. The soil is a somewhat stony clay
loam with a clay subsoil, generally reddish but in some
places bluish gray. The timber was about 57 per cent
balsam, 16 per cent birch, 13 per cent pine, 6 per cent
cedar, 3 per cent tamarack, 1 per cent spruce, 1 per cent
balm of Gilead, and 3 per cent miscellemeous. The
lower grades of dynamite were used on all kinds of
stumps except green birch, for which 60 per cent was
found most efficient.

The experiments which have led to the conclusions
mentioned, for further description may be classed as
follows :

Cost of clearing expressed in units of time and in units
of money.

Detailed study of the various stag'es of the clearing
work.

Forest products, a credit in cost of clearing work.

Eelative cost and efficiency of dynamite alone and in
combination with a puller.

Individual stump studies.

Standardization of charge, based on size, kind, con-
dition, and location of stump.

Comparative study of dynamites of various strengths.

Special study of the man-power puller.

Land-clearing practice.

Farm development.

Summary.

Preliminary operations. The clearing processes were :
(1) brushing, (2) logging, (3) burning, (4) assembling
(a) poles, (b) fence posts, (c) cordwood, (d) logs.
This work may be called Removal of Overburden, or
Stripping, to distinguish it from the work of removing
stumps. Any growth under three . inches in diameter
was considered brush. The first work on each of the

42 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

5-acre tracts was to cut the brush and to pile it and
the dead-and-down material which was of such a size
that it could be readily handled. The trees were then
felled across the brush piles, trimmed, and topped. The
trees were so felled in order to save labor in handling
the tops. When the log-s had been trimmed, they were
rolled back, and the small material was ready for burn-
ing.

The timber was disposed of as follows: All cedars
were cut into fence posts. All material sound and
straight and not less than 10 ft. long or 6 ins. in diameter
at the smaller end was saved for lumber. The small
sizes were cut into poles and cordwood, and larger sizes
unfit for lumber were similarly disposed of.

The burning followed the logging, as the weather had
been favorable and the brush was well piled and cut
before all the leaves had fallen. Dry, sunny afternoons
were selected for this work whenever possible in order
to facilitate the burning. With one man directing a
crew of eight, it was possible to burn over 5 acres in
half a day.

The careful organization of the crew is very essential
to efficient work. The men were deployed along the side
of the tract opposite to that from which the wind came.
After lighting one row of piles they could fall back and
light the second and succeeding rows without being
troubled by the smoke. After crossing the tract once,
the first fires had burned down so that they could repeat
the work, repile, and make a clean burn.

TABLE III

Cleaeing Costs and Time Requieed pee Aceb to Stump-
Removal Stage *

Aver'ge
Tract I Tract II Tract III Average time cost

Operation per

Man Horse Man Horse Man Horse Man Horse acre
Hours Hours Hours Hours Hours Hours Hours Hours

Brushing . . . 75.0 . . . 67.22 47.6 . . . 63.27 .... $12.88

Logging .... 84.6 . . . 66.85 .... 90.0 . . . 80.48 .... 15.40
Burning brush 8.8 ... 11.4 .... 9.45 ... 9.88 .... 2,05

* Price of man labor 20 cents per hour and of horse labor, 7^ cents per
hour. The latter is apparently low. However, at this 'Station, as at many
northern farms in process of development, horses work 'practically the en-
tire year, thus materially reducing the cost per unit.

CLEARING 43

Aver'ge

Tract I Tract II Tract III Average time cost

Operation pei*

Man Horse Man Horse Man Horse Man Horse acre

Hours Hours Hours Hotirs Hours Hours Hours Hours
Assembling

timber .... 17.65 18.1 17.7 17.6 24.6 26.4 19.9 20.7 5.52
Splitting cord-
wood 7.6 ... 7.7 .... 7.5 ... 7.6 .... 1.52

Piling cord-
wood 2.5 5.0 5.7 8.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 6.3 1.47

Outting pole

wood 18.0 17.9 17.9 .... 29.0 . . . 21.63 .... 4.32

Slddding logs 2.6 5.2 4.85 5.45 6.2 6.2 4.5 5.6 1.82

Piling logs... 3.25 4.1 7.2 5.3 8.0 5.2 6.4 4.86 1.64

Total ...220.0 32.4 207.52 36.35 228.35 43.8 218.67 37.46 $46.53

It will be seen that there is some variation in the
time spent in brushing. This is partly due to adverse
conditions in various places, but on the whole it is fairly
uniform, and illustrates what practice will do in making
a man or a crew more efScient. The same crew that
began the job finished it. The last acre, a difficult one,
required but two-thirds the time of the first one. Later
work has confirmed these figures. Where all windfalls
are included and the small persistent vegetation, such
as ground hemlock, is also cut of¥, the figures will run
nearly one-third higher. The removal of windfalls is
included elsewhere in this tabulation. The cutting off
of small vegetation may be ignored where the land is
to be worked and seeded. The cost of logging varied,
as there was a difference in the amount of timber to be
handled and the stumps were closer together, impeding
the work. Best results were secured in burning over
the first tract, since it contained less alder and more
balsam than was found elsewhere. It was also cut
earlier, piled more carefully, and had better drying
weather. While immediate burning is often good prac-
tice, a delay to allow slashings to dry is more economical

in the end.

TABLE IV

FOBEST PeODUCTS RECOVERED

Product Value per acre

2.05 cords hardwood at $3.75 $ 7.68

9.30 cords soft wood at $2.00 $18.60

1200 ft. B. M. lumber at $13.75 per M $16.50

10 fence posts at $0,075 $-0.75

Tota valuQ . . , $43.53

44 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

Hardwood is the birch timber that was not suitable
for lumber. The balsam was also disposed of as cord-
wood. The price given is the farm price. While the
wood was delivered by the farm teams, the price re-
ceived covered the cost of delivery as well as the farm
price. The market is close and the roads good. This
permitted maximum daily deliveries. The lumber was
sold on the farm. After deducting the cost of sawing,
the net returns were $13.75 per thousand feet. Total
receipts are exactly $3 less than the cost of removal.
No credit has been given for sawdust, which was used
for bedding ; or for slabs, which made splendid fuel at a
merely nominal cost. At many places there is at present
a good market for balsam and other soft evergreens
which are used as pulpwood and for boxes and are pur-
chased at more than fuel prices. As a farmer usually
delivers his own wood and other products, he would earn
the labor allowance therefor. Considering these items,
the statement that, in this region, the value of the pro-
duct will pay for the cost of clearing up to the time of
stumping, unless the market is some distance away, is
probably justified.

Removing the stumps. To many persons, land clear-
ing means only the removal of the stumps. In reality
this is but one step in the process of clearing, yet one
of major importance. In this investigation, 15 acres
were cut off. As already stated, 5 acres were blasted
green, 5 were blasted and pulled with a stump-puller,
and 5 were seeded to clover. A comparison of dyna-
mite and the stump-puller as to methods of handling,
cost, and efficiency, is presented.

The general practice of handling explosives is dis-
cussed elsewhere. In blasting, two men were usually
employed. The assistant made the holes and assembled
the materials while the blaster determined and placed
the charge, and made the notes. The men usually
worked from 7 to 11 in the forenoon, and from 1 to 5
in the afternoon, the remaining hour of each half- day
being spent in setting off the charges. Sometimes, when
conditions were very favorable, all the blasting was de-

CLEARING 45

ferred until afternoon. Usually, this is very hard on
the operator. [^

Where the stump-puller was used, one team, a team-
ster, and two, sometimes three, operators were engage(|.
Two men hancjled the w'ork nicely, the third jielping
with the cable. As the average diameter of the stumps
was barely 12 ins. at the base and as the stumps wej-e
split before pulling, in the one case, and completely
removed by dynamite in the other, a piler was not
needed. When the shattered portions were top large
to be handled readily, they were piled by means of the
decking chain in the following way : A pile was starteid,
the decking chain thrown across it, a team hitched to
one end and the stump attached to the other. One
teamster, with a quiet, well-broken team, thus piled
nearly 5 acres. The small sections of the stumps helped
to make a solid pile, while the use of the chain gave a
high, compact mass that burned readily.

Blasting. In making a study of the statistics several
things must be constantly kept in mind. The work was
done on land that had been cleared of timber less than
a year before, except for a small amount of pine pre-
viously culled out. This is expensive. The relative
degree of expense will be determined when the third
tract has been cleared, after time has elapsed to allow
the total or partial decay of the stumps and debris. The
work was done by the regular farm crew, who had to
be trained for the work as it developed.

TABLE V

Comparative Cost per Acre op Dynamite Used Alone and in
Combination with Puller — Green Sttjmpagb

Tract I
Item Cost

30.6 hours blasting labor at 20 cts $ 6.12

Material 24.00

1.3.0 hours piling refuse timber at 20 cts 2.60

26.56 hours pulling and piling stumps at 20 cts 5.31

53.12 team hours pulling and piling stumps at 7% cts. . . 3.98

8.4 hours' labor repiling at 20 cts 1.68

16.8 team hours repiling at 7% cts 1-23

3.6 hours' labor burning, at 20 cts 0.72

46 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

Item Cost

13.0 hours miscellaneous labor at 20 cts 2.60

6.0 hours miscellaneous team work at 7% cts 0.45

21.9 hours' labor picking up stone at 20 cts 4.38

36.8 team hours picking up stones 2.76

Total $55.83

Tract II

19.35 hours blasting labor at 20 cts $ 3.87

Material 8.32

13 hours piling refuse timber at 20 cts 2.60

36 hours' labor pulling stumps at 20 cts 7.20

24 team hours pulling stumps at 7% cts 1.80

63.2 hours' labor piling stumps at 20 cts 12.64

112.2 team hours piling stumps at 7% cts 8.41

3.0 hours' labor repiling at 20 cts 0.60

6.0 hours team labor repiling at 7% cts 0.45

3.6 hours team burning at 20 cts 0.72

31.6 hours miscellaneous labor at 20 cts. 6.32

29.0 hours miscellaneous team labor at 7% cts 2.18

21.0 hours labor picking up stones at 20 cts 4.38

36.8 team hours picking up stone at 7% cts 2.76

Total $62.25

Table VI

Cost pee Stump on Tracts I and II — Green Stumpage
Tract I

Stumps per acre 214.0

Average diameter, base (inches) 11.6

Average diameter, cut-oflf (inches) 9.3

Average height (inches) 26.4

Blasting per stump (minutes) 8.5

Cost of labor $0,029

Cost of explosive $0,112

Total cost $0,141

Tract II

Stumps per acre 220.0

Average diameter, base (inches) 11.6

Average diameter, cut-off (inches) 9.4

Average height ( inches) 26.4

Blasting per stump (minutes) 5.2

Cost of labor $0.02

Cost of explosive $0.04

Total Cost $0.06

CLEARING 47

The total time spent in blasting was divided among
the total stumps, although the smaller ones were not
blasted. Thus the average 2 ets. per stump given is too
small.

Note that on the first tract the cost of blasting was
greater for both labor and material. The smaller stumps
were not pulled on Tract II as it was assumed that they
could be pulled and piled without difficulty. This ex-
plains the small cost of labor and dynamite. Practically
three days were required to remove- 210 stumps from one
acre of land, 70 per 10-hour day. Fifty stumps per day
is the usually accepted unit for this work. In this case,
however, the stumps stood very close together, the aver-
age size was smaller, and the operator used good judg-
ment in planning his work, so the total was frequently
over 90 stumps per day of 10 hrs. On Tract II the cost
for labor and material was less than half. This, how-
ever, is not a good basis for comparison. The com-
parison should be made when the stumps are both pulled
and piled. The rule followed was to make the charge
strong enough to let the stumps and the roots be re-
moved by man and team without difficulty, and with no
waste. The data show that the object was attained in
nearly 95 per cent of the attempts.

TABLE VII
Blasting Efficiekcy — Gkeen Sttjmpage

Acreage involved 2. ."5

Total number of stumps 507

Number blasted completely out 302

Percentage blasted completely out 71

Number blasted so as to be removed by horses 112

Percentage blasted so as to be removed by horses 22

Blow outs, misfires, etc., requiring further attention 33

Percentage of blow outs, misfires, etc., requiring further at-
tention 0..5

Piolling. Several horse-power machines were used on
Tract II, following the blasting. Two horses and three
men were employed, one man acting as teamster and
the other two operating the machine. Taking a large

48 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

green birch as an anchor and a center, stumps were
pulled from all directions. From one setting, from 50
to 75 stumps could be handled, but with increasing dif-
ficulty, since each pulled stump was an obstruction. As
many as 10 stumps were pulled at a single hitch. This
included all sizes, and, of course, all did not come at
once. The plan followed was to half-hitch around the
nearest stump and then extend the cable and attach it
to succeeding stumps in the same way. All the power
of the machine was then centered on the first stump until
it came out or was snapped off. The cable then auto-
matically tightened and the tension passed on to the
ne?ct stump continuously until the last stump was
reached. Plenty of power was available, so much that
frequently dead stumps, especially white pine and
balsam, were cut through by the cable, leaving the roots
undisturbed. The following table illustrates the opera-
tion of the stump-puller:

TABLE VIII

Time pee Acre fob Pulling Stumps — Geeen Stumpage

Total number of stumps per acre 220

Total time per acre:

Man labor (hours) 36

Horse labor (hours) 24

Actual time required per acre (hours) 12

Acreage pulled in one day 0.83

Average number of stumps pulled daily 183

Time required per stump :

Machine work (minutes) 3.3

Man labor ( minutes) . 9.8

Horse labor (minutes) 6.5

TABLE IX

Cost per Acre foe Pulling Stumps — Geeen Stumpage

Cost of labor per stump:

Man labor , $0.03

Horse labor 0.01

Total 0.04

Cost of blasting per stump, Tract I (Table VI) 0.06

Total cost of removal per stump 0.10

CLEARING 49

Cost of piling per stump:

Tract I $0.04

Tract II 0.10

Final cost per stump, piled:

Tract I 0.18

Tract II 0.19

A stump was removed every 4 minutes. However,
since three men were working, this meant about 11 min-
utes of man labor and 7 of horse labor. Some stumps
were used for anchors, others were overlooked, and still
others were cut off by the cable, so the daily average did
not exceed 175 stumps, or about 17 per hour. It is in-
teresting to note that the average cost for blasting and
pulling on Tract II is almost identical with the cost of
explosive alone on Tract I. In this case no rental is
allowed for the machine. The increased cost of piling,
due to the greater bulk of the root system, the larger
fragments, and the adhering clay, makes the final cost
lower when explosives are used.

The use of a piler would probably have reduced this
somewhat, but the overhead charge would be increased,
the basis of comparison with dynamite would be affected,
and it would violate the spirit of the project, which was
to do the work in such a way that the overhead charge
in equipment would be limited to the minimum, and to
demonstrate what one man and a team could accom-
plish. As the stumps were split with dynamite in one
field and entirely removed in another, and were small in
average diameter (12 inches), a piler was not essen-
tial.

Piling. The item of piling is limited to Tract II,
while that of pulling and piling covers Tract I, since
on Tract I pulling and piling constituted a single opera-
tion. It is worthy of note that the work on Tract II
required about double the time of that on Tract I. This
is readily explainable. On Tract I it was largely a
matter of picking and piling the fragments of stumps
and pulling those portions remaining in the ground.
On Tract II the work was somewhat retarded, as more
or less clay and dirt adhered to the base of the stumps
and owing to the green character of the timber and the

50 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

small amount of dynamite used, more labor was required
to separate the shattered portions. The dead-and-down
material, consisting of the larger pieces of debris too wet
to dispose of at the first burning, was cut and piled and
used as a base for burning stumps.

Burning. The cost of burning is large or small ac-
cording to the time selected and the methods employed.
By building piles carefully, hjgher rather than flat, solid
rather than open, burning is facilitated and less repiling
is necessary. In every case the starting of the fire should
be so timed that repiling may be continued until the
entire accumulation is burned.

A stump pile should be of good size, solid in con-
struction, and of considerable height. A steady, hot
fire, under most conditions, is thus assured. It is equally
important that the piles be replied frequently, while the
fire is alive, and thus clean up the job at once. An
additional argument in favor of large piles is that they
are fewer in number and consequently less damage is
done to the surface soil as much of the humus is des-
troyed wherever a fire is made. The loss of humus is,
however, partly compensated for by the deposit of ashes.

Miscellaneous. Such work as picking and burning
roots, blasting boulders, and all work that must be done
preceding the picking of stones and plowing, is classed
as miscellaneous. Stone-picking is the first picking
ahead of the plow and includes all visible stones.

Small stones were easily handled, but the large ones
required more attention. Horse power was used, not
only in getting them out of the ground, but also in load-
ing them on the trucks. Stones that were missed were
picked following the plow, but the charge for this work
is not included here. This completes the work up to the
plowing.

Standardization of charge. Difficulty in blasting is
usually caused by making the charge either too large or
too small, both of which result in a loss of explosive,
although the latter is, of course, the more desirable of
the two. While the size and character of the charge can
best be determined by the operator, a few fundamental

CLEARING

51

principles may be followed with profit. The size of the
charge and the strength of dynamite to be used will
depend on the size, kind, condition, and location of the
stump.

TABLE X

Suggested Size and Kind of Charge

Kind of stump

Ground diameter
Inches

Charge

Balsam, green . . .

Up to 9

% pound

of 33 dynamite

9 to 10

1/2 "

40

10 to 11

% 2

33

11 to 12

33

12 to 14

40

Balsam, dead . . .

Up to 12

V2 'I

40

Cedar, green ....

13 to 14

33

Cedar, dead ....

14 to 18

V2 I

33

Birch, green ....

Up to 12

40

13 to 15

11/2 ;;

40

16 to 22

60

Birch, dead

Up to 17
18 to 20

33
40

21 to 25

1% ;;

40

Pine, dead

Up to 17
18 to 21

33

40

In conjunction with this feature of the work, a test
was made of the comparative efficiency of different
strengths of dynamite, using an equivalent amount of
explosive of different strengths on stumps of the same
kind, size and condition.

This table is not complete, as, in the land involved,
enough stumps of the required size and condition to fit
our needs could not be found, balsam excepted. Thus,
a birch stump is usually of considerable size, but the
number of both green and dead was too limited to secure
exact duplicates. Green pine was very scarce. Dead
balsam was not available. In each group of two, the
charge was placed at the same relative depth. While
the depth of the charge varied with the diameter of the
stump at the ground line in all cases, no definite scale
could be formulated. It has been suggested that the
depth should about equal the diameter of the stump at

52

CLEARING AND GRUBBING

the base. This will help the beginner, but his good
judgment will finally be the best guide. Get the charge
deep enough. It is probably better to place a charge
too deep than not deep enough.

In blasting the smaller stumps, such as balsam, cedar,
tamarack, spruce, pine, and balm of Gilead, the 33 and
40 per cent grades were most effective, considering the
cost. In blasting green birch, nothing less than 60 per
cent gave satisfaction. Green birch is difficult to handle.
With the weaker grades of explosive the strength of the
charge was spent on the stump proper, often leaving it

Fig. 9. Cutaway Bush and Bog Plow. Made by the Cutaway
Harrow Co., Higganum, Conn. An Efficient Tool on New Land

in worse condition than at first. With the higher grades,
a saucer-shaped hole was made, and both roots and
stumps proper were loosened and splintered, so that the
entire mass could easily be removed. The data secured
did not support the idea that using a larger quantity of
weaker dynamite is equivalent to a smaller quantity of
a richer grade. On the other hand, labor considered,
it is probably somewhat more expensive.

Seeding. An admirable tool for bringing newly
cleared land (whether the stumps have been removed or
not) under cultivation is the cutaway disk harrow. A

CLEARING 53

special heavy model is made which cuts, chops and
breaks the soil going over obstacles which would stop a
plow. This has the further advantage over the plow
of not bringing roots and trash to the surface but chop-
ping and leaving them in the ground where they will
rot and add to the soil. This machine is built with eight
24-in. disks and weighs 680 lbs. Another type with
eight 16-in. disks is rigged with shafts for use with one
horse. It could be used in seeding down stump land
even where the stumps are very thick.

Good results have been secured from the following
mixture: 1 pound each of white, alsike, and medium
red clover; 2 pounds of timothy; and 2 pounds of blue-
grass. On low ground the red clover was omitted and
2 pounds of alsike substituted.

Note : — The mixture, given by Mr. Thompson as satis-
factory for Minnesota, will probably not be found satis-
factory outside of the lake states. Most newly cleared
ground is infested with weeds, and unless it has been
thoroughly burned over the use of a nurse crop will be
advisable.

Crops following clearing. Tract I was cropped to
oats and seeded to clover and timothy late in June, the
crop being cut for hay. Tract II was cropped to com
but owing to an unfavorable season and . late planting
no crop was harvested. Tract III was used for pasture.
The annual report for 1915 contains the following re-
garding this tract. Owing to the remote location of this
pasture and the expense of getting the stock to and fro
exact data were recorded for a period of one month
only after which the herd was given free range of this
field together with the rest of the pasturage area for
this 30-day period the net return was as follows:

Total net return for butter fat per acre per month $4.50

Total net return in increased weight of young stock per

acre, 18 pounds at 5 cents per pound 0.90

Total $5-40

Following this period the entire herd was given free

54 CLEARING AND GRUBBINU

range over this pasture and the rest of the timber lot for
a period of ten weeks, granting that the late pasture
was poorer this season; (it is usually as good) we may
consider a total net return of $10.00 per acre a con-
servative estimate for the first year after seeding. Ad-
mittedly it will be better in succeeding years.

The foregoing abstract from Bulletin 163 calls atten-
tion to the possible loss in humus, which may be brought
about through the burning of stumps and of the vege-
table soil itself.

In this connection it is well to remember that forest
soils are apt to be sour and that as they contain much
vegetable matter it may be advisable to sacrifice some of
it for the "sweetening" effect of burning. The sub-
soil may well be the deciding factor. Thus it would be
folly to destroy the humus of a thin ' forest soil over-
lying a sandy subsoil whereas over clay considerable
burning might be beneficial.

Cost of clearing reservoir at Indian River, N. Y.
(Engineering News, May 18, 1899.) On this work the
specifications provided that all timber and brush of every
kind should be cut to within 2 or 3 ft. of the ground
and thoroughly burned or otherwise disposed of. The
total area was 1,160 acres, mostly covered with second
growth timber, consisting of small spruce, balsams and
various hardwoods. The larger trees were chiefly hard-
wood which would not float. The trunks of the hard-
wood trees were trimmed and allowed to lie at the re-
servoir bottom, while the trunks of the soft wood trees
were floated off. All trimmings and brush were burned.

The timber amounted to the equal of 75 cords per
acre, or a total of 70,000 cords. The work of clearing
was performed by gangs of twenty men, each under a
foreman. Laborers received $1 per day and board, and
foremen, $35 per month and board. The average cost
per acre of cutting, including some piling but no burn-
ing, was $7.50. One man cut one-fifth acre per day, in-
cluding some piling.

Bidding prices for clearing land in Ontario. The
following is given by J. Antonisen, in Engineering and

CLEARING 55

Contracting, Mar. 2, 1910: Some weeks ago I called
for tenders for the clearing of 20 acres of land at Port
Arthur, Ont. The object was to show the suitability
of land for factory sites ; the bidders were therefore re-
quested to figure on cutting down the smaller trees and
the underbrush close to the ground, but were to be al-
lowed to cut the larger trees from 12 to 18 ins. above the
ground. All the wood had to be burnt or removed.
About 11 acres were covered with tamarack and spruce
trees of fairly large size, but very few trees being more
than 12 ins. in diameter 18 ins. above ground. Nine
acres were covered with close underbrush of alder with
a few small birch trees and poplars. The land is situated
about two miles from Port Arthur, and there is no sum-
mer road to it, but it may be reached in the winter by
driving on Lake Superior along the shore.

Nineteen tenders were received with prices ranging
from $15 to $57 per acre; the lowest bidder failed to
enclose a marked check with his tender so that the con-
tract was awarded to the next lowest bidder, who offered
to do the work for $17 per acre. The other bidders
submitted the following prices :

3 Contractors $18.00 per acre

1 Contractor 19.00 per acre

1 Contractor 19.50' per acre

4 Contractors 20.00 per acre

2 Contractors 24.00 per acre

1 Contractor 25.00 per acre

1 Contractor 29.00 per acre

2 Contractors 30.00 per acre

1 Contractor 40.00 per acre

1 Contractor 57.00 per acre

The highest bidder offered to finish the work on June
15, or in practically four months. He evidently in-
tended to do the work alone and figured to clear one
acre every five days.

The wages in our locality are $2 for ordinary laborers
for 10 hrs., and $2.25 to $2.50 for good axmen. The
tamarack and spruce would make good cordwood, but
the other wood is of no value. The sleighing is very

56 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

good, and there is little work of any kind being done
now, so that laborers are plentiful.

Two shears ago I had 70 acres of land cleared in the
same vicinity but with a lighter growth of birch and
poplar, and I specified that all trees over 4 ins. in di-
ameter should be left standing. This work was done
for $9 per acre.

Clearing and grubbing a dam site in British
Columbia. Mr. C. E. Blee gives the following in an
account of the construction of the Bear Creek Hydraulic
Fill Dam, Jordan River Development, British Columbia,
in Engineering and Contracting, May 21, 1913 : The
site of the dam was covered with a very heavy timber
growth of fir, cedar, hemlock and spriice. The dam site
proper was cleared and all stumps removed, while all
timber which could reach the dam or spillway in falling
was cut, but not stumped. The borrow-pit area was
likewise cleared, and the stumps here were removed as
they were reached by the excavation. The flowage area
was not cleared, excepting the area immediately adjacent
to the dam. Stumps were removed with powder and
with donkey engines, and donkey engines were used to
some extent in piling logs, etc., for burning. However,
as a general rule, it was found more economical to buck-
saw the logs into shorter lengths and roll and pile them
by hand.

The area within the lines of the dam was stripped to
a depth of about 2 ft. to expose the soil proper. In
part of the stripping work, and in removing snow,
Y-shaped flumes were used to good advantage in carry-
ing off the material. Water was diverted from a small
tributary creek and carried across the dam site in light
flumes, whose position could be readily shifted. The
snow and stripped material was then shoveled directly
into the flumes and carried off by the water, being dis-
charged below the dam. The clearing and stripping
work is summarized as follows:

Summary of Clearing and Stripping

Acres

Cleared and stumped for dam site 5.3

Cleared, but not stumped, adjacent to dam 11.4

CLEARING 57

Acres

Cleared, but not stiunped, for borrow pita 9.0

Cleared, but not stumped, for camp site 3.0

Stripped for dam site 4.1

Itemized Labob Cost Cueaeing Dam Site

Per acre

Falling $ 38.50

Swamping and burning brush 127.50

Bucking 140.50

Log rolling and burning 260.00

Powder work 38.50

Donkey work (pulling stumps and piling) 198.50

Second burning 60.00

$863.50

Timber on above was estimated at 100,000 ft. B. M. per acre,
including unmerchantable timber. The following prices were paid
for labor: Fallers, 40 cts. an hour; buckers, 32% cts. an hour;
swampers and common labor, 27% cts. an hour. Weather con-
ditions were unfavorable throughout the work, due to rain and
snow.

Cost of stripping dam site to average depth of 2 ft., shoveling
into V-flumes, $737 per acre.

Cost of clearing and grubbing, Okanogan Project,
Wash. Engineering and Contracting, Nov. 5, 1913,
in an article eomparlngj the prices bid and actual con-
struction costs on the Okanogan Project, in Washington,
U. S. Eeclamation Service, gives the following: Price
bid for clearing 300 acres of reservoir site, $75 per acre ;
actual cost $29.44 per acre. Price bid for clearing and
grubbing 6 acres of dam site, $150 per acre; actual cost
$168.

Building skid roads and corduroy roads. A "skid
road" consists of round poles bedded in the ground like
railway cross-ties about 4 ft. apart. These poles or
"skids" are usually about 8 to 12 ins. in diameter arid
6 or 8 ft. long. With wages at $2.50 a day the poles can
be cut, delivered and laid to form a skid road through
a woods at a cost of about $75 a miles. Large logs can
be "skidded" or dragged over such a road. For haul-
ing shingle bolts and cordwood, "skid sleds" are built.
These have wooden runners about 10 ft. long. A team

58 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

of horse can pull a heavier load on a "skid sled," or
' ' boat, ' ' over well-greased ' ' skids ' ' than it can pull over
a dirt road, unless the dirt road is smooth and hard. A
"skid road" remains serviceable even in wet weather,
when a dirt road may become impassable.

For the cost of building corduroy roads, see my
"Handbook of Cost Data."

Making cordwood. A good axman will cut down
fir or pine trees and make .them into 4-ft. cordwood at
the rate of 2 cords per 10-hr. day. An extra good woods-
man will make 3 cords a day.

Cost of cutting cordwood. Frequently a contractor
must figure on using wood for fuel, in which case it is
desirable that he know the cost of cutting and piling
cordwood. The following average record relates to work
done in the state of Washington under the direction of
the author. The work involved the felling of the trees,
which were fir, sawing them into cordwood lengths (4
ft.), splitting and piling. Axmen averaged 2 cords per
lO-hour day, but an extra good woodsman will readily
average 3 cords per day. With wages at $2.50, a cord
of wood cost $1.25 ready for hauling.

A cord measures 128 cu. ft., of which about 65% is
solid wood, the remaining 35% being the voids or spaces
between the sticks. Washington fir when green weighs
about 3,5 lbs. per ft. B. M., and about 3.2 lbs. when dry.
Hence a cord of green fir weighs about 3,200 lbs., or 1.6
tons, which is a good wagon load on most roads. About
10 cords is the ordinary carload.

On a wager, a Vermont woodsman undertook to cut
down, chop up, split and pile 5 cords of basswood be-
tween sunrise and sunset. He did it, with nearly an
hour and a half to spare, for he had completed his work
in 10 hours, and had half a cord of unpiled wood left
over. The trees ranged in length from 60 to 70 ft. and
were 9 to 13 ins. diameter at the butt. At the end of
4 hrs. and 40 mins. he had felled 18 trees and had
chopped and split 3i/^ cords. It took him about 2 hrs.
and 40 mins. to pile the 5 cords.

This record is said to be the best ever made. It is

CLEARING 59

interesting to note that this man's output was about
double what is regarded as a good day's work, and, in
this respect, the record bears out the generalization that
a man can perform on a wager about double the physical
work that he is accustomed to do day in and day out.

CHAPTER IV

GRUBBING BY HAND

Grub axes and mattocks. The hoe is often used to
dig up weeds or roots, but for roots that go deep into the
ground it is too broad and too light to do the work
well, so the grub ax or grubbing hoe is used for this
purpose. The grub ax is like the mattock, except that
the "cutter end" is omitted. This makes a light tool,
but an unbalanced one. The grubbing hoe should be
used entirely for grubbing.

Fig. 10. Long Cutter and Short Cutter Mattocks

Mattocks are known under two names: the "short-
cutter" mattock, Fig. 10, and the "long-cutter" mat-
tock. They vary in weight from 5 to 12 lbs., the dif-
ference being due to the length of the cutting blade,
which is about 4 ins. long in the short cutter, and 6 ins.
or more in the long cutter. This tool is primarily de-
signed for grubbing, and is much more efficient than a
pick. With the mattock small roots can be cut with
either end of the tool, but the "cutter end" or "ax-like
end" will cut through larger roots. However, extremely
large roots should only be exposed with the mattock, and
then cut with an ax. In digging around a root to ex-
pose it, the digging blade of the mattock cannot only be
used like a pick for loosening the dirt, but like a hoe to
draw out the loose dirt. A shovel is of little service in
such places.

Most stumps can be blasted cheaper than they can be
dug up by hand, and stump pullers will frequently save

60

GRUBBING BY HAND 61

money over blasting, yet there will always be some grab-
bing done by hand, just as with innumerable machines
for excavating earth there is always some work that
needs the pick and shovel. Stump pullers should be used
wherever it is possible to do so, but even when they are
so used many stubs and roots must be dug up with the
mattock, especially when scrapers and elevating graders
are to be used for moving the earth. It is true that
many smaller roots can be torn up and rooted out by
using a rooter plow that is manufactured by the different
plow companies, but still some of this work must be done
by hand and the mattock should be used for it.

Hand grubbing aided by frost. {Engineering and
Contracting, May 25, 1908.) When stumps are grubbed
by hand, the tools to be used are a long cutter mattock,
an ax, and a round pointed shovel. A long heavy lever
should also be cut in the woods to be used in prying up
stumps, after they have been partially loosened. This
will be found a great help. Two men should always
work on one stump, as their pace will be faster than
when a man works alone, and they will do more efScient
work with a lever.

When grubbing is done by hand, and the stumps can
remain in the ground throughout the winter, in cold
climates, much work can be saved by digging around
the stumps in the fall and cutting off a few of the main
roots. The frost then gets under the stumps through
the excavation made, and this heaves the stump partly
out of the ground, making the rest of the work compara-
tively easy in the spring. Old stumps can be taken out
in this way easier than green ones. In clearing land
and when able to let the stumps remain in the ground
for several seasons, by doing a little work around the
stump each autumn, farmers can let frost heave the
majority of the stumps almost entirely out of the ground
in two or three years.

Grubbing standing trees. Frequently old trees on
lawns and in parks where it is not practical to blast have
to be taken out by hand labor. It is of great advantage
when doing this work to grub out the stump before the
tree is cut. A ring of earth 2 ft. wide about the stump

62 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

is excavated with shovel and mattock, and all roots en-
countered are cut through in two places, first at the
outer edge of the excavation and then as close to the
trunk of the tree as is needed to give room for the ex-
cavation. As the work proceeds two or three roots that
appear capable of holding the tree in place are selected
to be left until last. When all other roots that can be
reached are removed these are cut and the tree falls,
often breaking thick vertical roots that could only be
reached with great difficulty. Another advantage of this
method of procedure is that if blocks or logs are placed
for the tree to fall across, its weight will frequently lift
the stump clear of the hole which may be back-filled be-
fore the stump is cut from the trunk. The roots remain-
ing in the ground are generally small enough not to
interfere seriously with a plow. Working this waj' one
man can dig out, cut up for removal and back-fill the
holes of from one to two old apple trees, approximately
2 ft. in diameter, per day. Root systems of old apple
trees vary greatly in extent as does also the amount of
wood they contain. Many are hollow, making them easy
to cut up ; but if they break in falling, leaving the stump
in the ground, this saving in cutting up is more than
offset by the cost of removing the stump.

It is sometimes feasible to undermine tall trees in the
autumn on the side away from the prevailing high
winds. During the winter or spring a strong wind will
uproot such trees, effecting a great saving in the cost
of grubbing.

Cost of clearing and grubbing^ at Brockton, Mass.
The following brief abstract is from Engineering News,
May 18, 1899 : In the work for the filter beds at Brock-
ton, Mass., 1894, there vrere 18.8 acres cleared and
grubbed, of which 14.4 acres were standing pine. The
trees varied from 6 to 24 ins. in diameter, and there were
about 3 trees per sq. rod. or 480 per acre. When cut up,
about 35 cords of wood per acre were obtained. The
total cost of pulling and disposing of stumps was $112
per acre or 23 cts. per tree. Wages of laborers were
$1.50 a day.

Cost of clearing and stripping, Spot Pond Reservoir.

GRUBBING BY HAND 63

In Engineering News, Dec. 12, 1901, Mr. C. M. Saville
gives the cost of some work on the Spot Pond Storage
Eeservoir, near Boston, Mass. Laborers were paid $1.75
and teams $4.50 per 10-hr. day, and worked by the day
under a foreman who received 10% of the labor cost
for superintending the men and furnishing tools. The
following figures show how inefficient the men were under
this day-work method.

The shores of the reservoir were stripped of about
40,000 cu. yds. of earth which was 80% loam and 20%
gravel and hardpan, hauled 1,000 ft. ; and the cost was
55I/2 ct. per cu. yd. Another piece of very compact
earth cost 62 ct. a cu. yd., although the haul was only
300 ft.

Clearing and grubbing 5 acres of densely wooded
shore, cost $492 per acre, small trees being chopped
down, while large ones were undermined, their roots cut
off and the tree pulled over by block and tackle, hitched
to the tree top, with 20 or 30 men pulling. It cost be-
side this $100 per acre more to cord up (1,000 cords)
the marketable timber, and bum the refuse.

Hauling (800 ft.) and laying several thousand cu. yd.
of riprap (18 in. thick) cost 68 ct. per cu. yd. The
labor of seeding 28 acres, including raking and remov-
ing roots and stones, cost $43 an acre.

Cost of grubbing for elevating grader work. Engi-
neering and Contracting, Dec. 25, 1907, gives the fol-
lowing :

The job to be described was the clearing and grubbing
on nine miles of railroad construction. Most of the line
was through cultivated fields, but in 11 places varying
in length from 100 to 4,600 ft. there was clearing to be
done. In all there were I414 acres, of which 1% acres
were over areas upon which embankments were to be
made, while 13 acres were in cuts, hence there was botb
clearing and grubbing to do. The excavation was tq be
done by an elevating grader, and the grubbing had tO bp
done more thoroughly than it would have been, if othejr
methods of excavating had been employed. , '

The first work done was to clear the ground- Mo^t
of the brush was burned, but some brush and .the logs

64 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

were rolled to the edge of the right of way and piled up.
The trees, of the size of 6 in. or more in diameter, num-
bered about 40 to the acre; but there was a very rank
undergrowth of bushes and saplings, the stumps and
roots of which all had to be grubbed. The work was
done by contract, and the men working upon the job
were not experienced woodsmen or axmen, but were
such as could be obtained at the labor market centers.
Many of them were foreigners. The wages paid to the
foreman was $2.50 and to the men $1.50 per ten hour
day. A waterboy was paid $1.00 per day. In the
clearing gang an average of 12 men were worked, some
using axes and others brush hooks. The brush was piled
by hand, no forks being used, and the logs, few being
more than 3 ft. in diameter, were cut short and rolled
by means of hand sticks. Some few were carried by the
men with these sticks.

The cost of clearing per acre, for 14^4 acres, was :

Foreman $ 4.59

Men 27.10'

Water boy 1.36

Total clearing per acre $33.05

The grubbing was done by a gang of men averaging
15. The wages were the same. Some few of the larger
stumps were blasted, and their roots afterwards grubbed.
Dynamite, costing 15 cts. per lb., was used for this blast-
ing. No separate record of the stumps that were blasted
nor of the explosive used for each was kept, only the
total cost of the explosives being kept, and the labor of
blasting was included in with the other grubbing.
About 6 stumps were blasted to the acre.

The cost of grubbing per acre, for 13 acres, was:

Foreman $ 4.54

Men 38.84

Water boy 1.81

Explosives 2.54

Total grubbing per acre $47.73

The men used long cutter mattocks and short handled

GRUBBING BY HAND 65

shovels in grubbing the stumps and roots. There is but
little doubt that this cost of grubbing could have been
reduced by the use of a stump puller, but the contractor
did not own one, and thought the job too small to justify
purchasing such a machine.

The total cost for clearing and grubbing was as fol-
lows:

Foreman $ 8.74

M^n 62.54

Water boy 3.00

Explosives 33.00

Total clearing and grubbing per acre . . $76.00

The tools used for this work cost about $50, but with
the exception of the brush hooks, they were all used on
other work, hence to charge half their cost to this job
would be sufficient. This means a charge for tools of
$2 per acre, making a total of $78.60. This work was
being done at the same time that grading and other con-
struction was going on, hence the charge to be added
for general expense, such as superintendence and office
expenses would be small.

This clearing and grubbing was not paid for by the
acre, but the work was included with the grading, and
the price of excavation covered the clearing and grub-
bing. There was 90,000 cu. yds. of earth excavation on
the 9 miles of road, hence the cost of clearing and grub-
bing amounted to about I14 ct. per cu. yd. of earth.
If elevating graders had not been used, the cost with the
same forces doing the work, would have been less than
1 ct. per cu. yd.

Another example of clearing and grubbing is given
below. Five acres of woodland were to be cleared and
grubbed of all bushes and worthless saplings, vines and
briers. The undergrowth was dense. None of the trees
were to be cut. The clearing was done by a contractor,
but he was paid "force account," that is, actual cost
plus a percentage for his work. The wages paid were
the same as in the example just given. The brush, old
logs and other debris had to be burned, and care had
to be exercised that none of the trees were injured, as

66 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

the woods was to be made into a park. The cost of
clearing was as follows, per acre :

Foreman $ 7.25

Men 54.06

Water boy 3.00

Total clearing per acre $64.31

This work was done in the fall of the year, and the
weather was exceptionally good. The following spring
the ground had to be thoroughly grubbed in order to
plant grass seed in the woodland. This work was done
with mattocks, every inch of the ground being gone over,
brier roots, old stubs and all roots of bushes being dug
out. There were also a few old stumps that had to be
taken out, but the work was mostly the small surface
roots of bushes, saplings and briers. After the ground
was gone over with mattocks, steel rakes were used to
rake out the roots, and put them in piles. Wheelbar-
rows were then used to haul them away to a waste pile,
where they were afterwards burned, when they had
dried sufficiently.

This work had to be well done, or else the grass seed
would not make a good sod; that an excellent sod was
obtained in one season, was evidence that the work was
well done. Company forces did this grubbing, the rates
of wages being : Foreman $2.50 for 9 hours, and labor-
ers $1.50 for 9 hours. The cost of the grubbing per
acre was:

Foreman $ 4.20

Men 51.30

Total grubbing per acre $55.50

This gives us a total cost for clearing and grubbing
of $119.81 per acre. To this should be added $2.00 per
acre for tools.

If this work had been done by contract, it could not
have been done better, but there is little doubt that the
cost would have been less.

Clearing for an earth dam in Oklahoma. The fol-
lowing is from an article by Mr. J. "W. Holman in En-

GRUBBING BY HAND 67

gineering and Contracting, Nov. 13, 1912, on construct-
ing an earth dam at McAlester, Oklahoma:

The cost of building the dam, compiled from force
records, etc., which were made up during the construc-
tion of the dam, is given herewith. The contractors
contend that the cost here given is about 10 per cent
too low, and that probably is true.

Clearing borrow pits, 9 acres :

Feed $ 90.00

Labor 202.50

Repairs, etc 24.80

Total for clearing 9 acres $377.30

Cost of clearing per acre 41.92

Stripping 9 acres 6 ins. deep, total 7,260 cu. yds. :

Feed $240.00

Labor 525.00

Repairs, etc 58.00

Total for stripping 7,260 cu. yds $823.00

Cost per cu. yd ., 11.3 cts.

Preparing dam foundation, 2.1 acres; clearing:

Feed $ 18.00

Labor 31.50

Repairs, etc 4.60

Total for clearing 2.1 acres $ 54.10

Cost of clearing per acre 25.80

CHAPTER V

BURNING AND CHAK-PITTING

Burning stumps. The following is from Farmer's
Bulletin 381, published in Engineering and Contract-
ing, Dee. 22, 1909 :

Removing stumps by hand is a slow and costly
method when the stumps are of small size and is out
of the question for the large stumps of fir and other
trees up to 5 and 6 ft. in diameter. In the last condi-
tion the principal up-to-date methods are burning,
blasting and pulling or some combination of these.
Burning is considered the best way to remove pine
stumps which have a large amount of turpentine, as this
greatly assists in the process, and the long, deep roots of
these trees are a great hindrance in pulling. In regard
to burning these stumps Mr. Ferris, of the Mississippi
Station, says:

' ' The common method * * * is to dig a hole about
12 in. deep with spade or post-hole digger on one side of
the stump, as close to it as possible, and to use this as a
furnace for firing the stump. In digging these holes it
is necessary that the dirt be removed from as much of
the surface of the stump as possible, so as to allow the
fire to come in direct contact with the side of the stump
for at least 6 ins. An ordinary turpentine dipper on a
suitable handle makes one of the best implements for re-
moving this dirt."

This is a rather slow process, but may be greatly
hastened by boring a slanting hole through the stiimp
from the opposite side to the fire hole. For boring, the
Mississippi Station has used the simple machine shown in
Fig. 11, invented by J. W. Day. It is thus described:

A 2-in. ship auger is welded onto one end of a %-in.

BURNING AND CHAR-PITTING

69

Fig. 11. Portable Boring Machine for Boring Stumps for
Blasting

iron rod 6 ft. long. Four inches from the other end of
this rod a collar is welded and the end of the rod passed
through an iron box fastened to a movable frame about
18 ins. square. A bevel gear is then fastened to the
extreme end of this rod either by a key or set screw and
works into a second gear of the same kind fastened on a
horizontal shaft. This horizontal crank shaft is made
of 1-in. iron rod bent at one end to form a handle, with
a fly wheel fastened on the opposite end. It works
through two boxes fastened to the movable frame and
slides down the main frame as the auger bores into the
stump. The upper end of the machine is elevated about
5 ft. and stands on two cart wheels, on which it is easily
rolled from stump to stump or from field to field by a
single individual. This elevation of the frame helps to
brace it against the stump in boring, raises the crank
shaft to a height at which it can be most easily turned,
causes a slight pressure to be constantly exerted against
the auger, and makes it possible to bore the hole diago-
nally into the stump. At the extreme upper end of

70

CLEARING AND GRUBBING

the frame is a small windlass with ropes attached which
is used for pulling the auger out of the stump.

This machine was used to aid in clearing 2.3 acres of
land which had been cut over about seven years before.
The sapwood had decayed, but the balance of the stump
above ground and all below was sound. On this plat
there were 158 stumps that required boring. These
averaged 13.6 ins. in diameter, and the length of hole
bored averaged 19.7 ins. the total cost being less than $8
an acre, figuring labor at $1.50 per day.

For burning the large stumps of fir, etc., in the Pacific
Northwest, a quicker method is used, which consists of
boring two intersecting holes, as in Fig. 12 and burning

Fig. 12. Sketch Showing Method of Boring Stumps for Burning-

by starting a fire at the intersection with the aid of red
hot coals or a piece of iron heated to a white heat.
After the part marked A is burned out the fire is main-
tained by filling the space with bark and litter. While
the method first described generally results in burning
the stump low enough to allow of cultivating over it in
the case of pine stumps, the method used on the western
trees leaves the larger stringers with their smaller roots
to be pulled out by steam or puller, or "they may be
entirely burned by digging away the earth and rolling
a small log alongside of the root."

Char-pitting stumps. Bulletin 170 of the Washing-
ton State Agricultural Experiment Station gives the
following : Of the various methods of removing stumps
none seems to be more economical than the char-pitting
method of burning them, according to Mr. Geo. A. Nelson,

BURNING AND CHAR-PITTING 71

County Agriculturist of Wahkiakum County, who has
used the method to good advantage in his county.

In preparing the stump for burning, the bark should
be removed from the base, and on some stumps it is neces-
sary to remove some of the dirt. Thus the fire may be
started so near the bottom that it will start burning under
the main part of the stump and the roots. Any kind of
wood that forms good coals may be used. It should be
cut short and either stood up around the stump or laid
on its side. The wood may be piled so as to start the fire
entirely around the stump or in one place, as may be
desired. The former method will burn the stump out
more rapidly, but takes more wood and more time to pre-
pare. After the wood is placed it may be covered with
fern or other similar material, and a thin layer of dirt
should be placed over it, with the exception of leaving a
place large enough to start the fire. Only a light coating
of three or four inches of dirt should be put over the fire,
and this should not be piled against the stump over 18
ins. high. As the wood burns down, the fire will break
through the dirt in places, and it will then be necessary
to apply more dirt to cover it. As the fire bums into the
stump, more dirt should be shoveled over it. Should the
fire burn higher on the stump than where the dirt is
piled, it should be put out, instead of trying to cover it
by piling the dirt higher. The fire should be covered at
all times, and never be allowed to burn into an open
blaze ; as when it does much of the fuel is burned up and
the heat lost. The object is to confine the heat. When
this is properly done it becomes intensely hot around
the base of the stump. As the main part of the stump
is burned out, care should be taken to keep the roots
covered properly, so that they will all burn out.

Another method of char-pitting stumps, which has been
recommended by the University of Idaho, is to saw the
stump off as near the ground as possible, and skid or
lift the upper part of the stump off the base from two to
four inches, using stones to hold the two pieces of the
stump apart. Then in the summer, when it is dry, a fire
can be started between the two parts of the stump. The
two burning surfaces radiate heat upon each other and

72 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

thus maintain continuous combustion. The top of the
stump gradually settles down, burning the roots out.

Only soil that contains a considerable amount of clay
is suitable for char-pitting. Sandy or gravel soils are
not adapted to the work. This method has proven
equally successful in Wahkiakum County on both the
hill and bottom land. It has proven especially successful
on the reclaimed tidelands. The quality of the stumps
and the nature of this soil makes it especially adapted to
the char-pitting method.

The efficiency of the char-pit method of burning
stumps.i The char-pit method applies economically to
stumps over 1 ft. in diameter. Smaller stumps can be-
removed more cheaply by pulling with horse and capstan,
or donkey engine.

In tests of char-pitting in the western part of Wash-
ington, all bark was removed from the stumps for a
height of about 2 ft. above the ground. Enough dry
kindling wood was gathered from the ground and ' ' down
logs" to form a ring 6 to 8 ins. in thickness entirely
around stumps where bark had been removed. After
kindling was placed, it was closely covered with clods
and thick flakes of clay dug near the stump with a farm
shovel, leaving only open a small space, about 1 ft. wide,
for igniting the kindling. While the kindling wood on
first stump was becoming thoroughly ignited, other
stumps were similarly prepared and the kindling fired.
After kindling was thoroughly burning, the 1-ft. open-
ing was also covered with earth to drive the fire around
the entire ring of kindling like a charcoal pit. When
the rising smoke indicated that the kindling around the
stump was well lighted, additional dirt was placed closely
around the stump to keep all the heat inside the casing
of earth.

None of the heat escaping, the fire grows hotter from
the burning stump and slowly destroys the stump. Tall
stumps will burn entirely off just above the earth casing,
and the upper unburned part of the stump can be readily

1 Eeport of tests made for Citizens' Club, Oliehalis, Wash., under the
supervision of Prof. H. W. Sparks, Superintendent of Department of Farm
Demonstration of the Washington State College, and Mr. Harry Thomp-
son, Expert, Office of Farm Management, United States Department of
Agriculture. Reprinted in Engmeering mid Contracting, Oct. 18, 1911.

BURNING AND CHAR-PITTING 73

burned up in log heaps. The bed of coals left where the
crown has burned off should be covered closely with addi-
tional earth and all roots that are exposed above ground
should also be similarly covered with from 4 to 6 ins. of
earth, and the fire will follow roots to their ends clear
below plowing depth.

The first day of the tests two men prepared and fired
32 large stumps. The second ■ day they examined the
32 burning stumps and added dirt to the banking where
necessary, and prepared and fired 26 more stumps; the
third day, 24 stumps ; and the fourth day, 18 stumps — a
total of 100 stumps. Every day they visited the burning
stumps and prepared and fired more stumps.

Data were computed on the preparing, firing and
tending of 100 stumps kept burning continuously at an
average cost of less than 50 cts. per stump. These 100
stumps averaged 46 ins. in diameter at the base, by
actual measurement.

These tests were made on a shot clay soil, on the hill
land of the south side of the Chehalis Eiver, about one
mile from the Adna station on the Northern Pacific Rail-
way.

Reliable information of still lower cost per stump by
the char-pit method of burning has been received from
Mr. J. W. McCutcheon, also of Adna, who reports clear-
ing off 200 stumps at a net cost of $70, an average of only
35 cts. per stump.

Enough data have been obtained fully to establish
these facts concerning the char-pit method of clearing
logged-off lands wherever soil conditions are favorable.

First: The economy of the method, which can be
conducted without high-priced labor and at seasons when
other farm work is not heavy, or can be done at all
seasons in connection with other farm work.

Second: The char-pit method leaves the surface of
the ground practically undisturbed, and prepares highly
fertilized seed beds for grains, root crops, fruit trees and
grasses.

Extensive investigations lead to the conclusion that
while nearly every tract of logged-off land presents some
different features, a sensible adaptation of the following

74 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

three approved methods will accomplish their clearing at
minimum effort and cost:

First : By char-pit method, where economy and not
time is the important factor.

Second : By skilled use of powder and donkey engine,
where land must be cleared quickly.

Third: Where land to be cleared is second growth
slashing, with stumps 4 to 14 ins. in diameter in great
numbers, they can be best cleared with a good horse-
power capstan with wire cables, chokers, etc., which can
be bought complete for two hundred dollars. If larger
stumps are occasionally met, they can be blown to pieces
and pulled, or char-pitted, as the owner may desire.

In Engineering and Contracting, Sept. 20, 1911, some
further facts about the process are published, of which
the following is an abstract:

Mr. F. B. Holbrook, a real estate agent, has a "de-
monstration camp" near Globe, Ore., where "during the
past thirty days Mr. Holbrook has removed 400 stumps,
2 to 6 ft. in diameter, for the extremely low cost of 75
cts. each." This includes the removal of all the roots,
M'^hich are completely burned out, often for a distance of
50 ft. from the parent stump and to a depth of 2 ft. It
is stated that if these huge stumps had been removed
by blasting it would have cost $4 per stump for powder
alone.

After the fires are once started in the stumps, "one
man with a long handle shovel can attend to 600 stumps,
which is the average number found on a 20- acre tract."
It is stated that there are 40 to 50 big fir stumps per
acre, also that one man can char-pit and destroy every
stump and fallen log on a 10-acre tract in five months.

The problem of destroying fallen logs and brush has
been greatly simplified by ilr. Holbrook. By using
small charges of black powder, he splits the largest logs,
and this, together with other economies practiced, has
reduced this part of the clearing process by more than
50 per cent.

The actual work of char-pitting ma3' be so divided that
it can be carried on the year round. In the rainy season
th? bark should be removed from the stumps, and around

BURNING AND CHAR-PITTING

75

each stump a small trench dug. Both these operations
can be best carried on in wet weather. Then in the fol-
lowing June or July, when everything has been dried out
thoroughly, pile the bark, which has been removed from
the stump, around the stump and cover it lightly with
freshly spaded earth. This done, set fire to the covered
bark and the process is on. Watch the fire and keep it
well covered with earth, and in from one to three weeks.

5ioveFlpe-

Brounddurfoce

Fig. 13. Form of Stump Burner

owing to the size of the stump, it will burn up, roots
and all.

A simple portable device for burning stumps. In
Engineering and Contracting, Oct. 18, 1911, Hiram
Phillips describes the device shown in Fig. 13 as follows :

The device was made out of an old "Wilson" down
draft heater by removing the bottom, placing it over the
stump and packing the earth firmly around it, preferably
using wet clay firmly tamped.

It only takes a few minutes to place the burner and
to start the fire. The time required to bum out a stump
varies according to the amount of moisture in the wood
and the draught (height of stove pipe of the burner).

The writer has burnt dry oak stumps 36 ins. in di-
ameter completely out in 10 hours. When the earth is
comparatively dry the roots will be consumed 6 ins. or
more below the ground surface.

There is no danger from flying sparks carried by high

76 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

winds. By clearing the ground a few feet around the
stump this burner can safely be used without danger of
starting forest fires.

The time of burning a stump can be materially
shortened by adding fuel occasionally. An ordinary
rain will not interfere with the successful operation of
the burner. It is the opinion of the writer that under
average conditions one active man could operate at least
25 of these burners simultaneously.

A blowing machine for stump burning. Prom
Bulletin No. 8 of the Washington State Agricultural Ex-
periment Station, by Harry Thompson, the following
has been taken :

About the first method used by the early settler in
destroying stumps was to bore intersecting holes into the
stump as far as he could and by the use of oil, pitch
splinter or hardwood coals start a fire at the intersection
of these auger holes. By careful manipulation of these
fires he was able to burn the top and crown of the stump,
separating the large roots that were afterwards removed
by the use of a team and blocks or a stump-puller. This
method is very rarely used at the present time in Wash-
ington.

Another method employed by the settler and used in
some localities at this time is to split the stump by a
small charge of powder, after which it is set on fire and
kept burning by piling into the cracks small logs, brush
and other stuff that is picked off the ground. After the
burning has done all that it will do, the remaining roots
are pulled by means of a team or by a stump-puller.

As early as 1870 there was a patent granted upon a
stump burner that consisted of a hood of sheet iron to
set over the stump. Since that time several similar con-
trivances have been patented, none of which are in use
today upon the fir stumps of Washington. In eases
where they have been tried they have only succeeded in
burning the stump off at the surface of the ground,
leaving the roots in the soil to be taken out by some other
method. Another objection to the use of the hood upon
the fir stumps is the great size required to cover the large
stumps.

BURNING AND CHAR-PITTING 77

For some years there have been appearing from time
to time in various publications formulas for the de-
struction of stumps by the use of chemicals. It was
claimed that by treating a stump with saltpeter or a
mixture of sulphuric and nitric acid that it could be
burned out completely to the tips of the smallest roots.
The method was to bore an auger hole into the stump,
fill it with the mixture and allow it to stand for several
months, after which it was to be covered with eoaloil
and set on fire. Many have tried both these methods
with no success whatever.

A "blowing machine" for burning stumps usually
consist of a gasoline engine, a blower, a distributor and
several lengths of rubber hose with short lengths of pipe
upon one end. Some of the machines use tin conductor
pipe connected by short pieces of rubber hose instead
of the long lengths of rubber hose, as it is cheaper.
There is usually one or more patented devices in use
about each of these machines.

The air from the blower is divided into an equal num-
ber of parts by the distributor and forced through the
lengths of hose to the nozzle and upon the fire.

One method of operating is to bore holes with an inch
and a quarter auger into the roots of the large stumps
at a sufficient depth below the surface to permit of plow-
ing, the earth having first been removed from around the
stump to a depth of from 12 to 18 ins. A fire is then
started at the bottom of the holes by means of a hot
iron and the nozzles placed at the openings. The air
blasts keep the fire going. While these are burning, four
holes are bored about 2 or 3 ft. above the first ones so
that if they were bored far enough they would intersect
and fires started in them in the same manner. After
these holes burn to an. intersection they will continue
burning after the air blasts are removed.

Another method of operating is to chop a notch into
the stump at several points and to roll short logs against
it at these points, start fires between the logs and the
stump and direct the blasts of air upon the fires.

The destruction of the stump by this method does not
take place as quickly as is popularly supposed or as

78 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

quickly as is claimed by the inventors of the process.
While a great heat is generated it seems impossible to
hasten the burning beyond a certain point. As most of
the stumps to be burned are quite old and contain a
large amount of water, even in the summer months, the
best results are obtained when using this machine by
operating it continuously day and night until the stumps
fired at one time are completely consumed.

One man can operate a machine of this kind where
only 5 or 6 lines of hose are used. Where 12 or 14
lines of hose are used two men are required most of the
time.

Although several of these machines have been sold
throughout the country, very few of them have been
operated successfully or have met the requirements of
the purchasers. As a result most of these outfits have
been abandoned for burning stumps.

The principal objection to this method of burning
stumps is the difficulty of burning the roots far enough
below the surface to admit of cultivation. This can be
done only where the stumps root deeply or where the soil
is a clay.

These outfits cost from $350 to $500 complete in every
way.

The cost of gasoline and lubricating oil to operate the
outfit is approximately $1 per day of 10 hours.

The following was the cost using this method in
Snoqualamie River Valley :

Stump pasture had been slashed and burned over two
years before.

Large fir stumps deeply rooted in sandy, well-drained
soil.

Work was done in June, 1910.

The 20 acres that had been slashed averaged 12 large
stumps per acre by actual count. There were no small
stumps, owing to the fact that that land had been used
for a pasture for a number of years.

Outfit: 41/2 horse-power gasoline engine, blower and
air distributor ; twelve lengths of two-inch rubber suction
hose with eight-foot nozzles; twelve lengths of three-

BURNING AND CHAR-PITTING 79

quarter inch rubber hose with half -inch pipe nozzles;
augers, tools, etc. Cost of outfit $500.
, The crew consisted of two men.

Labor of two men, 115% hours at $0.25 per hour $57.75

Gasoline and lubricating oil 10.80

Total for 9 stumps $68.55

Cost per acre { 12 stumps) $91.40

Experiments in clearing land with a stump burner.

The following is from a report by Mr. W. H. Lawrence,
Bulletin No. 93, Agricultural Experiment Station, State
College of Washington, abstracted in Engineering and
Contracting, Sept. 27, 1911 :

The stump burner used in the experiments. The
stump-burner consists of a 1% h.p. gasoline engine with
13-in. flywheel and adjusted to run 650 revolutions per
minute; a circular fan (No. IV American blower with
8%-in. fan and 2%-in. pulley) provided with a patent
wind distributor tapped to attach five lines of 1%-in.
hose; hose couplings; pieces of 1%-in. rubber hose of
different lengths; a number of pieces of galvanized iron
tubing; a few small iron plates, and several lengths of
boiler tubing slightly curved at one end, which are used
as blow-pipes. The hose couplings are used to attach
the rubber hose to the wind distributor and the blow-
pipes. The tubing, which is of the right diameter to
fit inside of the hose tightly, is connected with short
pieces of rubber hose 18 to 24 ins. in length. By using
tubing and short pieces of hose of variable lengths the
right size to telescope, provision is made for varying the
length of line of hose as desired. The lines of hose are
very light and easily adjusted, since no couplings are
required. The tubing connected by short pieces of hose
also prevents doubling, thus retarding or stopping the
current of air. From the description, it is plainly seen
that the stump-burner is small, light in weight and very
cheaply constructed. At a later date the blower was
coupled with a 2-h.p. gasoline engine and mounted on a
truck. "With the latter engine a few trials in operating

80 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

a wood-boring auger by power were made as described
later.

The plan of work. The jnachine was set in a con-
venient position to burn several stumps at a time. Auger
holes, 2 ins. in diameter, were made in the base of the
stumps. The boring was done by hand. The auger was
directed inward and downward in order to extend the
hole as low and as far as the center or even three-fourths
to seven-eighths of the diameter when the stumps were of
large size. Short pieces of hose with couplings on one
end were attached to the wind distributor, and sections
of galvanized iron tubing inserted, after which alternate
sections of hose and tubing were added in order to make
the lines of hose of sufficient length, after adding the last
section of hose with the blow-pipe attached, to reach the
stumps. A fire was then started in each auger hole by
using live coals of wood or kindling. The machine was
set in motion in order to fan the fires. In burning, it
was the plan to drive the fire to the center of the stump
and to confine it as long a time as possible, preventing,
if possible, the forming of a large opening at the point
of entrance. This was accomplished by inserting the
blow-pipe into the opening as fast as the burning would
allow. Occasionally, burning around the blow-pipe takes
place more rapidly than desired. In such a case it was
found advantageous to use an iron plate of sufficient
diameter to cover the hole. The plate has an opening in
the center large enough for the insertion of the blow-
pipe. By keeping the fire confined it is less difficult to
drive it into the main roots than when allowed to burn
in the open. The blow-pipes must be moved frequently
in order to keep the fire burning briskly and to the best
advantage.

When the fire is confined and the air is constantly
forced into the small space, the heat becomes so intense
that the gas burns as it leaves the blow-pipe forming a
long flame. The heat generated under such conditions
is intense. Small rocks were readily melted when placed
in the stumps which were burning briskly. The intense
heat produces charcoal very rapidly. The layer of char-

BURNING AND CHAR-PITTING 81

coal apparently retards the rate of burning. It was
found advantageous under some conditions to frequently
remove the layers of charcoal, using a long-handled iron
chisel.

After the center of the stump has been partially
burned out and the opening is large enough to permit the
introduction of kindling, it is an excellent plan to insert
as much small wood as possible. The bed of coals formed
by the kindling aids to maintain an intense heat. Ex-
cellent use of the debris can be made in burning the roots
after the crown of the stump has been largely destroyed.
Prom a very limited trial, it is evident that charcoaling
and pitting the roots may be practiced to a good ad-
vantage at this stage in the use of the stump-burner.

Burning large logs is also quite readily accomplished.
The best results were obtained by boring a hole as near
the underside of the log as possible and about three-
fourths through it, after which the fire was controlled
as described above. Small debris (sections of dead limbs,
etc.) may be inserted into the log to a good advantage
after the fire has made a cavity of some size. Again, as
in burning stumps, it is advisable to remove the charcoal
by using the long-handled chisel.

After the logs have been burned into sections and re-
duced in weight so that they can be handled to a good
advantage, the tops of the stumps (which are seldom en-
tirely burned) may be piled with the other debris, con-
sisting of all small stuff, together with the small trees
which have been cut into sections for convenience in
handling, and burned. It is advisable to use the outfit
only in case marked results cannot be obtained in burn-
ing the pile.

Kind and condition of logs and stumps turned.
Trials were made in burning both cedar and fir under
various conditions. The first trials were made in a
marsh, in burning cedar stumps and logs which were so
saturated with water that it was impossible to burn them
without the aid of a machine. The intense heat, gener-
ated by the burning gas and wood (especially when the
fire was confined), produced a heat which dried the wood

82 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

faster than burning took place. This trial lasted for a
period of eight days. The results obtained under such
conditions were encouraging. Better success, however,
was met with in burning fir.

Stumps of various ages and conditions were burned.
It is found that the greater the age of the stump, the
more quicklj^ it could be destroyed. The condition of
the older stumps was found to vary from solid to badly
decomposed, by the action of the elements, assisted by
saprophatic fungi and wood-boring ants. Stumps con-
sisting of fir wood which have not absorbed very much
water are easily burned. Naturally the more pitch they
contained the more rapidly combustion took place.
Those stumps, however, in various stages of decay and
full of fungi, and in many eases well saturated with
water, were usually more difficult of destruction. Con-
cerning the various conditions of fir stumps, it can be
said that the general appearance is no indication of the
ease with which they may be burned. In several in-
stances, stumps apparently sound, as indicated by ex-
ternal appearance, were so thoroughly saturated with
water throughout the greater portion of the heart wood
that, after the holes were bored, the water continued to
drip or even in some cases to run from the wood for a
period of several minutes and even hours. The intense
heat which can be generated by the aid of such a ma-
chine is sufficient to destroy the most water-soaked and
decayed forms, although the progress is much less rapid
under such conditions.

Two green fir stumps, one 5 ft. in diameter, 5 ft. above
the ground, 22 ft. around the base at the ground, with
12 large roots, and the other 41/2 ft- in diameter 6 ft.
from the base and measuring a little under 19 ft. around
the base, with 8 roots, were burned off in a 12 hours'
run. The 20 roots, with the exception of three very
large ones, were burned below the level so that the plow
would go over them. A run of 4 hours with 4 lines of
hose was required to finish the work. The cost to do
the work, basing the cost of labor at 30 cts. per hour,
and a charge of 70 cts. for gasoline and oil, the average
cost of removing the stump would be $2.60 each.

BURNING AND CHAR-PITTING 83

Twenty-two kours' work on a green fir stump about

5 ft. in diameter, with large spreading roots, gave less
encouraging results. The small fir burned out com-
pletely, eve^i the smaller roots penetrating to a depth, of
3 ft. The crown of the cedar burned, separating the
roots but not low enough for a plow to pass over them.
The roots of the large fir were water-soaked, hence burn-
ing was almost impossible. In both cases the crowns
were burned out, separating the roots. Basing cost on
above mentioned price, the average cost was $2.73.

The sixth test was made on cedar stumps, one 21^ ft.
and one 4 ft. in diameter, and a green fir 5 ft. in diameter

6 ft. from the base. It took 28 hours to complete the
work. The roots were not burned out. During this test
a delay of several hours was caused by a disabled engine,
thus making it impossible to control the fire to the best
advantage. The cost per stump was $2.93 in this trial.

A group of five old fir stumps, one 2 ft., two each 3 ft.,
and two each 2 ft. 6 ins. in diameter, each 9 ft. high,
more or less decayed and thoroughly soaked with water,
were burned low enough to destroy the crowns, thus
separating the roots, in a 22 hour run. These stumps
were in such a water-soaked and decayed condition that
the fire would not burn after the blowers were removed.
The roots could not be burned, owing to the, abundance
of water in the soil. The average cost of doing this
work was $1.56 each.

Another group of five fir stumps^ 9 ft. tall, with an
average diameter of 3 ft. 6 ins., mostly sound but water-
soaked, were burned, as low as the soil conditions would
permit, in 27 hours. Again the crowns were destroyed,
leaving the roots separate. The average cost of this
work was $1.70 per stump.

Five large fir stumps, each 10 ft. in height, averaging
5 ft. 2y2 ins., 3 ft. from the bases, were burned off so
that all the crowns were destroyed, leaving the roots
separate, many of which were also largely burned up.
Forty hours' time was required to do the work. The
cost of burning done on each of these stumps was $2.80.

Conclusions. (1) The economical destruction of
large stumps is the most perplexing problem in land

84 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

clearing. By the use of the stump-burner the crowns
of stumps are readily destroyed, thus leaving the roots
separated. The roots may be burned below the surface
so they will not interfere with cultivation, oy they may
be removed by the use of small quantities of stumping
powder or some other convenient method — the method
to be determined by the cost. The stumps of the smaller
growth may be removed at this time and by the same
method. The large logs may be burned in sections, the
smaller ones cut into convenient length for handling,
and the entire mass of debris, including the small rub-
bish, collected in piles and burned. By this method, the
important problem of putting the entire mass into a
condition so that it may be handled and burned quite
readily is accomplished, leaving the land ready for the
plow.

(2) To operate the outfit described for a period of
10 hours requires the services of one man, 2 gals, of
gasoline, and a small quantity of cylinder oil. The cost
for labor, at $2.00 per day, and 2 gals, of gasoline and a
small quantity of cylinder oil would not make the cost
of operating exceed $2.50 per day. In operating a five-
line burner, the operator has time to get together the
small refuse, and to saw into convenient lengths for
handling the timber which is too small to bum to a
good advantage with the aid of the machine.

It is believed from the experience gained in the use
of this stumpTburner that one large enough and equipped
to operate 10 lines of hose at a time could be operated
to a better advantage. The increase in cost of opera-
tion of a large machine would only exceed the original
cost of operation of the five-line type by a small per cent.
The large machine would require more gasoline and
cylinder oil.

(3) The average cost of burning stumps was $2.30.
These stumps averaged 47 ins. in diameter. To remove
such a stump by blasting would require about 33 sticks
(25 lbs.) of powder at 13 cts. per pound. The powder
would cost $3.25. Considering the additional cost of
doing the blasting, filling the hole caused by the ex-

BURNING AND CHAR-PITTING 85

plosion and the work required to destroy the stump after
it has been removed by the use of powder, the practice
of burning can readily be seen to be far the cheaper one.
It is also to be noted that the purchase of the powder
requires $3.25 ready money. In using a stump-burner,
the cost is represented very largely by labor at $2.00
per day.

(4) Clearing land with a stump-burner requires good
management in order to obtain good results. It is essen-
tial to place the blow-pipes in the right position in order
to direct the burning to the best advantage and the right
distance from the fire to insure rapid burning. The
operator must be a good observer, industrious, and a
steady worker to get the desired results.

Boring by power and burning. As concluded in the
first part of this discussion, a stump-burner to be had at
a reasonable cost, light in weight, and easy to handle,
easily and cheaply operated, with which effective and
rapid destruction of logs and stumps is accomplished,
more nearly meets the requirements of the small land
owner of limited means.

While the plan followed, to confine the fire and direct
the current of air so that the greater portion of the
interior of the log or stump has been consumed before
the fire breaks out, has proven to be a successful and
cheap method, a more rapid burning is desirable. It is
also true that a stump or log, when properly bored so
that the holes extend about three-fourths through and
intersect at a wide angle and are so slanted that a good
draft is possible when a fire is started at the intersection,
will in many cases be partially consumed. A log will
usually burn into sections, and the greater portion of
the crown of a stump will be destroyed yet leaving the
large roots still united.

A judicious combining of these two methods appeared
feasible. It was very evident from experience and
observation with both methods that the slow and tedious
work of boring the holes by hand is responsible for a
large portion of the time consumed. It was also evident
that in some cases at least much more effective and rapid

86 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

work could be done by increasing the number of holes,
in order to place the fires in different portions of the
same piece of wood at the same time.

In order to accomplish the boring of a large number
of holes, and at a rapid rate, some form of mechanical
power must be employed. The engine, mounted on t^e
truck with the blower was fitted with a sheave wheel. A
flexible shaft about 7 ft. in length, provided with at^.ach-
ments to be driven by an endless rope, was fitted with a
li/2-in. ship auger with a special shank about 18 ins. in
length. The flexible shaft was then fastened to the
stump or log to be bored by using a chain. It was then
set in motion by the endless rope, guided by pulleys
attached by leads to the nearest and most convenient
obstacle, running on the sheave wheel of the engine.
Running at a rate which did not make the task of
holding the auger a difficult one, holes 15 to 18 ins. in
depth were easily bored in 20 to 28 seconds. The
average was 25 seconds. Using the same auger, and
running it at the same speed, holes were bored to a
depth of 30 to 32 ins. in 50 seconds to 1 minute in time.
The average was 55 seconds. The more rapid rate at
which holes were bored to a depth of from '/5 to 18 ins.
was due to the structure of the auger. Th( speed of the
auger was sufScient to run shavings clear of the hole
until it was inserted past the worm. Occasionally pitch
seams or small knots cause the worm to clog. After
insertion past the worm, however, the shavings would
accumulate in the hole at the top of the shank and at
frequent intervals were removed by withdrawing- the
auger, causing the worm to force the shavings out.

In order to remove the shavings while boring at this
rate, it is apparently necessary to equip the auger with
a much longer worm. In the limited number of trials
made, it was somewhat surprising to note that such rapid
work could be done with very little delay on account
of heating the auger. Care must be exercised at all
times, however, so that the auger will not be heated
enough to injure the temper.

To combine the method of burning by keeping the fire

BURNING AND CHAR-PITTING 87

enclosed and briskly burning by use of the blower, and
where the fire is given a natural draft as in the plan
where intersecting holes are bored, a large fir log about
31/2 ft. in diameter was bored at four intervals about 6
ft. apart. The plan in boring was to make one hole
straight into the lower side of the log about 4 ins. from
the lower edge and three-fourths the distance through it.
Three to five holes were then made by directing the auger
downward from the upper surface, connecting with the
cross hole, if possible.

The fires were started in the lower holes, the blower
set in motion and the results noted. The fire, constantly
fanned in the lower holes, advanced into the vertical
holes very rapidly. In some cases all the vertical holes
had not been made to connect with the horizontal ones.
In these cases the rate of burning at first was greatly
retarded until the fire ate its way through the solid por-
tions of wood, connecting the vents. The fire when
fanned by the blower is driven into all the openings,
and very shortly every portion is lined with fire, which
is also driven in short columns several inches in length
from the mouths of the openings.

Although several minor trials were made with good
results, the main experiment was conducted on a large
log. Each set of boring gave slightly different results.
In one ease the lower hole was bored entirely through
the tree. It was impossible to burn to advantage, since
a draft could not be produced in the longer and vertical
holes. In another trial, the holes were not bored as
deeply as the cross holes. It took some time to get the
fire burning briskly and to connect all these vents with
the lower one, since several inches of solid wood had to
be consumed before a draft was possible. However,
where the cross holes met with the vertical vents, in every
case, the fire started in the lower hole, advanced into all
the upper ones very rapidly, and continued to burn
briskly. In less than one hour the entire center of the
log had been burned out, leaving a shell about 6 to 8
ins. in thickness. By making vents to direct the fire,
burning can be easily controlled and made more effective

88 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

by placing pieces of bark or sods of dirt over one or any
number of the vents, thus stopping the drafts, and mak-
ing a few new vents, if necessary.

The trials were very limited in developing this
method, since they were discontinued by a disabled
engine, followed by heavy rains, and furthermore re-
quiring the attention of the entire station force to care
for grain and other crops.

Owing to a slight unavoidable change in the plan of
the work, it was impossible to continue the work on this
method. Believing that the results obtained are worthy
of further consideration, the plan of work and conclu-
sions drawn, together with the method pursued, are
herewith given.

Conclusion. This method of boring by power and
burning is a very promising one, since :

(1) The machine used is easy to handle and service-
able.

(2) Much time is gained by boring the holes by power
and makes it possible to bore large numbers of holes in
a very short period of time.

(3) Directing the flame by making vents insures burn-
ing in the desired direction. By the use of these vents,
fire may not only be driven in the desired direction, but
the rate of burning may be regulated. The rate of burn-
ing may be easily regulated by placing pieces of bark
or sods over the vents or by inserting the section of the
limb of a tree, using the thing at hand and procured with
the least exertion.

(4) Wood burns more rapidly when given a draft
than where the fire is confined. The rate of burning
may be regulated by the amount of air forced through
the vents by the use of a blower.

(5) Much effective burning may be accomplished by
boring a series of holes for vents, after which the fires
may be started and allowed to burn by the natural drafts
— burning trees into sections and the tops of large
stumps, etc.

(6) Combining the methods of burning stumps and
logs by the use of a stump burner and boring- intersect-
ing holes and burning, so that the fire is guided to the

BURNING AND CHAR-PITTING 89

best advantage and caused to burn briskly by a con-
tinual forced draft is both practicable and advisable.

Distilling stumps in place. According to Engineer-
ing Record, June 10, 1916, stumps in a timber country
are not usually considered an asset, but Eastman, Gardi-
ner & Company of Laurel, Miss., owners of much long-
leaf pine timber land, have found a way to distill various
pine oils direct from the stump. Prom an ordinary

Fig. 14. Distilling Stumps in Place

good-sized stump about 25 gal. of distillate are obtained
by the hood-shaped apparatus shown in the accompany-
ing photograph. After removing the water there remain
about 17 gal. of heavy pine oil. The stump is converted
into a fine grade of charcoal, very much like coke. It is
destroyed far enough underground to permit plowing
over it without further work. There is a cylinder inside
the conical cover, and the intervening space is filled with
pine knots for fuel. About four hours are required to
destroy a stump, so the distillers handle two stumps per
day.

A stump burner which requires no blower is de-
scribed by E. Roy Allison in Engineering Becord,
March 31, 1917, as follows :

90 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

In contrast with the closed type of hood burner, this
latest stump burner consists of a metal housing with
various apertures for particular service, with smoke-
pipe connection at the top. It is constructed in sections
to provide for any class of service, covering both large
and small stumps. By the use of movable draft pipes
arranged around and near the base of the burner, it
eliminates the necessity for any blower or other arti-
ficial draft device, the required draft being brought
about by natural conditions and hood construction, and
in a highly efficient manner for the service designed.
While this burner operates more slowly through the use
of natural draft, demanding greater periods of time for
stump consumption, the operating cost is reduced to a
minimum, the primary pxpense being that of labor and

/'//"dverlap wifhVshapele Bolk

/Sheet MebfSmoke Sfack

No.2PCage 5f eel Panels

NoJd Qage 5 feel Panels
^bsen/afi'on Hole
I MM^'ik"''.^ \ /'P'v^'Oi. wifh Cover-

Lip and Inverfedy'Jolnts h/'^ ^2"Draft Pipe Openings, with

Plvoteduamper

Fig. 14o. The Hubbard Stump Burner

attendance, which is low when a number of burners are
in operation on the same land at the same time.

This burner, known as the Hubbard stump burner
and produced at Seattle, consists of an adjustable steel
hood of two principal sections to form a base and top,
designed to be placed over the stump, or stiimps, in
operation. Bach section is built up to any desired size
by means of interchangeable panels, allowing the utmost
facility in handling and erecting on the site. The lower
section panels, when joined together, have a clear width
of 17 in. at the base. Installed in position, using such
number of patiels as is required, they form a frustrum-
with the upper edge to serve as the support for the top
section. This top section also forms a flatter frustrum,

BURNING AND CHAR-PITTING 91

terminating with an opening 12 in. or less in diameter,
depending on the number of panels used, and is equipped
with a smokestack, as shown. Each panel is arranged
for connection to the adjoining panel in the field with
stove bolts or strong cotter pins.

Prior to operation, the stump, or stumps, to be burned
are cleared away Sufficiently of dirt and debris at the
roots to allow the kindling of a good fire. After the
erection of the hood over the area, the fire is started
by using the observation openings in the lower panels,
while the draft pipes to be employed are inserted in posi-
tion to render the best possible effect of the forced
draft. The draft increases as the temperature rises
under the hood, being augmented by feeding logs to the
fire, as needed, after kindling.

The draft tubes are pushed in from time to time as
the roots of the stump are consumed, while the number
of tubes with which the hood is provided allows for a
full play of the fire. The volume of hot air in the hood
produces a constant and forced draft through each tube
— a heat, however, which is not intense enough to affect
the sheet steel hood, as the air supply is limited at the
roots.

Recent tests on Washington timber lands show that
this type of stump burner will consume stumps from
3 to 5 ft. in diameter, together with roots within the
range of the burner, in a period of 24 hours, while
larger stumps from 6 to 7 ft. are burned in 30 or 40
hours. In connection with a low first cost and operating
expense, this stump burner offers particularly effective
service in the field, both in installation and in removal
to adjacent sites.

CHAPTER VI

BLASTING

Blasting outfit and methods used in Wisconsin.

Bulletin 216 of the University of Wisconsin, Agricul-
tural Experiment Station, published in 1911 by J. P.
Kadonsky, gives some valuable information on the use
of explosives in clearing land, from which the following
is taken.

Kinds of explosives. The common Irinds of explosives
used in Wisconsin and Minnesota are dynamite and
virite. The dynamite ranges from 20 per cent to 60
per cent in strength but the most universally used is 40
per cent. The 60 per cent "straight" acts very rapidly
with a shattering effect, while the 25 per cent "extra"
acts comparatively slowly with a propelling force.
Virite is only of one strength equal to 40 per cent dyna-
mite, as determined in the field, but much slower in
action. The higher the strength the speedier and more
sensitive the dynamite. Those grades marked "extra"
are slower in action and should be used where a pro-
pelling force is desired.

It is very important to have the different grades of
dynamite where shattering and propelling forces are re-
quired. In raising a boulder or a stump, a slow pro-
pelling force is best, but for breaking rocks or stumps
a speedy shattering force is necessary. Dynamite freezes
easily and when in that condition should be handled very
carefully. When it is left in the hot sun during the
summer it is rendered much more sensitive and requires
more precautions in working with it. The effects of the
odor or contact with dynamite causes many operators to
become sick. If a pair of canvas gloves is used in
handling the cartridges they can be discarded when they

92

BLASTING 93

become saturated. Breathing the smoke or fumes should
be entirely avoided.

[The reader is referred to Gillette's "Handbook of
Kock Excavation" for methods of handling, storing,
thawing and charging dynamite.]

Virite is comparatively more stable than dynamite.
The latter can almost always be exploded by a ball from
a rifle, while the virite would remain intact. Virite is

Fig. 15. A Handy Box for Carrying Explosives, Fuses and Caps.
Compartments in One End Provide for the Caps and Fuses

put up in bulk or cartridge form and is non-freezing,
and consequently can be used in the coldest climate with-
out thawing. It has no odor which affects the operator
as in case of dynamite, but the powder cannot be used
in water unless confined in waterproof cartridges.

Blasting equipment and methods. The following is a
list of equipment needed for blasting in the field: A
supply box, auger, crowbar, shovel, wooden ramrod, and
a cap-crimper. A supply box can be made on the farm
by taking an empty dynamite box and placing a vertical
partition across one end, leaving a space the width of an
explosive cap box. At one end of this make a compart-

94

CLEARING AND GRUBBING

ment that will just admit a box of caps. The remainder
of this space can be divided equally by one-half inch
cross pieces and each section labelled 18 inches, 20 inches,
and 24 inches, respectively. The remainder of the box
is used for explosives. Care should always be taken to
keep the caps separated from the explosive. A wooden

•HS^^yf't-

f •

,

i
<

-

■
1
»

Fig. 16. Three Essential Tools for Preparing Holes Under Stumps
for Blasting; Large Soil Auger in the Center, a Crowbar at the
Right and a Piclc at the Left for Opening a Hole Under the
Stump. Each is an important Labor-saving device in Placing
Explosives Properly

hoop may be nailed over this box for a handle so that it
balances when filled with supplies. (See Fig. 15.)

A convenient auger is made by welding a long shank
onto an ordinary 2-inch auger. Where the roots are not
too numerous and admit a larger auger, it would be
advisable to use it. A medium-sized tapering crowbar
should be used. The large end should be drawn to an

BLASTING 95

edge, and the other end, to a blunt point. The ramrod
can be made from an ordinary broom handle and should
be at least 3i^ ft. long. These tools are shown in Figure
16. A round-pointed shovel is best for removing the
soil from the roots when loading and in filling the hole
when tamping the charge. A long tin funnel should
be used to pour the virite, when in bulk, under the
stump.

For making holes in the dynamite to receive the cap,
a tapering hardwood stick just a trifle smaller than the
diameter of the cap can be used. Attach this stick to a
cord fastened to a trousers' button where it will not be
lost. Where the stumps are of uniform diameter it is
well to prepare the fuse of certain lengths before going
into the field. Cut the fuse with a hand-ax by laying
it on a block on which a board is nailed horizontally
and marked the desired lengths.

Carry also a roll of fuse which may be cut in the field
to meet exceptional eases. There are a good many dif-
ferent ways of handling this fuse. Some people blast
with only about 6-inch fuse, no matter how long the hole
is, by lighting the short fuse and dropping the dynamite
on the rest of the charge, exploding without tamping.
This method is very risky.

The end of the fuse should be cut square, not on a
slant. If cut slantwise, the point, becoming dry and
hard, is likely to explode the cap when inserted into it;
or this point is likely to turn over in the cap and cause
a misfire. The fuses are then inserted into the caps and
crimped with a crimper. Care should be taken that each
cap is free from any foreign matter, since this will serve
as a protection to the fire from the fuse and cause a mis-
fire. The fuse should not be inserted into the cap too
far and should never touch the bottom, since this is very
sensitive and may cause an explosion. When the end
of the fuse enters the cap and is crimped, so that it just
holds and withstands a reasonable amount of pulling
during the process of tamping the charge, it is sufficient.
The fulminate in the cap is so sensitive that it is ex-
ploded by the fire from the fuse when the end is nearly
one inch outside the opening of the cap,- if the fuse be

9G CLEARING AND GRUBBING

directed into it. Do not expect the fuse to burn like a
fire cracker fuse. It is lit as soon as it gives a little spit
of fire in answer to the match, but the outside cover of
the fuse does not burn. Always retreat at least 100 ft.
after lighting the fuse, until the charge explodes. In-
stances have occurred where the fuse was lit in the morn-
ing and hung fire all forenoon and exploded about 11
'clock.

In light sandy soil the gases tend to blow out on either
side of the stump between the roots when the charge is
deep, leaving the stump in place. This is due to the
greater ease with which the force can escape at some
distance below the base of the stump where there is a
greater spread of roots than farther above.

Care should also be taken not to place the explosive too
shallow. If the charge is not deep enough and the head
of the stump is weak the result is that the top of the
stump is blown off, cutting and leaving the roots above
the plow line.

It is difficult to set any hard and fast rules regarding
the depth at which the charge should be placed under
the stump. The operator must use his judgment in each
individual case, but place the explosive as shallow as
possible, avoiding cutting off any part of the stump
above the plow line. This will give the best and most
economical results. As a rule it is best to place the ex-
plosive in a bulk form breaking up the cartridges, espe-
cially when blasting large stumps. The force then radi-
ates equally from one central point and splits the stump
into the maximum number of parts. When the charge
is in a cylindrical form, most of the force acts at right
angles to it and generally splits the stump into two
parts.

Hints on placing charges. There are a few things
that should be observed about loading to save time and
get the best results. When the hole for the charge is
large, it is well to take the powder out of the cartridge
and tamp it well into a bulk form. The paper wrappers
should also be included, since these, which are saturated
with nitro-glycerin, are also explosive. The quickest
and most satisfactory way is to cut the wrapper length-

BLASTING

97

wise into four parts with a sharp knife as shown in Fig.
17.

When pressing the cartridge into the hole, always
use a wooden ramrod, never a metal crowbar, and press
the cartridge hard enough to make it compact. The
explosion will then be complete and effective.

When this cut cartridge reaches the bottom of the hole
and is pressed with the ramrod it bulges and crumbles

Fig. 17. Slitting the Wrapper to Enable the Charge to be Pressed
Compactly in the Hole

into a mass. When placed in a cylindrical hole, the cut
parts bulge so as to fill the opening completely, thus
making the charge compact, which is desirable. (See
Fig. 17.)

Into the last part of the charge, the fuse with cap
crimped onto the end, should be placed. If an ordinary
fuse is used, a very quick and satisfactory way is to hold
the cartridge in the left hand and make a hole with a
pointed stick slightly smaller than the diameter of the
cap in the side near one end at an angle of 30 degrees.
The cap is then pressed into it so that it is buried in the
powder and the fuse bent back to form a sort of hook
with the cap as a point. This is passed down the, hole to
the remainder of the charge and the fuse can stand a
reasonable amount of pulling without coming out, but

98 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

rather tends to go farther into the cartridge. The cap
on an electric fuse can be inserted in the same manner,
but the wires should be looped around the cartridge.

Care should be exercised not to tamp the part con-
taining the cap, but to press it gently. The other part
of the charge must be tamped well if dynamite is used,
but with virite, it must always be left in an absolutely
loose form. The charge is generally tamped with soil,
which is brought up with the tool in boring the hole, or
with any loose soil which may be at hand. Always use
a wooden ramrod in placing and tamping the explosives,
and never place any metallic tool down the hole near the
charge under any circumstance.

When the operator has had some experience and knows
the approximate amount of explosive required for a
stump, it is well to load a large number and fire them
at one time. This saves time and miles of travel, if one
blasts all day and fires each one after loading. A good
way is to load for half a day and "fire" during the noon
and evening hour, when the rest of the workmen are not
present.

Relation of explosive to sub-soil. Each kind of soil
requires a particular kind of explosive. It has been
found that in the clay soils a slow propelling force is
the most satisfactory, which is furnished in dynamite of
27 to 30 per cent strength. This explosive, acting slowly,
removes the roots without snapping them off above the
plow line, leaving the soil in a comparatively loose con-
dition, which is verj^ important. When a "speedy
powder"- is used, as 60 per cent strength, on the clay
soil, it snaps many of the roots, leaving them above the
plow line and packing the soil firmly, leaving a sort of
basin.

For the light sandy soil where the footing is not good
and there is chance for the gases to escape, a "speedy
powder" should be used, equal to 60 per cent dynamite.
The condition of the soil with respect to moisture regu-
lates, to a great extent, the amount of explosive required
per stump. Owing to a great variation in the structure
of stumps, and soil condition, it is impossible to give any
definite information as to the amount of powder neces-

BLASTING 99

sary to blast a stump of a given size. This must be
regulated by the experience of the operator. Extremely
loud reports and the tlirowing of the parts of the stump
great distances is an indication of an excessive use of
explosives. A deadened report following the explosion,
the splitting and lifting of the stump just out of the
ground shows the most economical use of the explosive.

Methods of firing charges. The most common way is
to split the end of the fuse to expose the powder which
is lit with a match. Some men place a pinch of dj^na-
mite on the end of the fuse. The quickest and most
satisfactory way when matches are used is to thrust the
head of a safety match, whose chemical part is just start-
ing to burn, into the end of the fuse. This never fails
to fire, no matter how much the wind blows. It is well
to scratch the match on an adjacent root or the sole of
the shoe, so the head of the match cannot burn long
before being thrust into the fuse, which is very important
in this method. Where a large number of stumps are to
be fired at once, a live brand or an iron rod 1 in. thick
and about 3 ft. long, heated in a burning rubbish pile
in the field, is recommended.

The safest and perhaps the best means of firing is to
use an electric blasting machine for that purpose. One
electric blasting machine consists of several electric dry
batteries arranged in a box for convenience in carrying,
and connected with a switch which must be closed in
order to fire the charge. It is fitted with screw binding
posts for convenience in connecting the machine into the
circuit with the powder. A number of stumps close to-
gether can be fired simultaneously. The cap of the
electric fuse is placed in the cartridge in the same way
as the cap on the time fuse, only the wire is looped about
the cartridge. The wires running to the cap should be
long enough so that they will project out of the hole
when the charge is tamped.

Connect one of the cap-wires to a long wire running
to the machine, 200 ft. away. Connect the other cap-
wire to an insulated wire running to the next stump and
so on through all convenient charges back to the blasting
machine to complete the circuit. The method is illus-

100

CLEARING AND GRUBBING

trated in Fig. 18. The charges are fired by closing the
switch.

Fig. 18. Method of Blasting Several Stumps at Once; b Repre-
sents Electric Blasting Machine; c a. Charge of a Stump Con-
nected by the Cap- Wire into the Circuit at a; d Represents an
Insulated Wire Connecting One Charge with Another

Care should always he taken to have the wires dis-
connected at the battery while preparing the charges.
Electric firing has advantages over time-fuse in that ac-

Eig. 19. Du Pont Pocket Blasting Machine. Capacity, 4 Blasting

Caps-

BLASTING

101

cidents are less likely to occur, the chance for misfires is
reduced, and there is a saving of time by blasting a
number of stumps simultaneously. Often two or more
adjacent charges must be fired at once to get the best
results, which is possible only by the use of electricity.

Causes of misfires. Misfires are due principally to
the presence of foreign material in the cap ; pulling the
fuse out of the cap ; pulling the cap out of the powder ;
or to a defective fuse. Perhaps the most serious acci-
dents occur when a time fuse burns to a certain point,
and then, owing to some defect, burns very slowly for a

Fig. 20. Relative Sizes of Dupont Blasting Machines. Capacity
1 . to 5, 30, and 150 Blasting Caps

few minutes. The operator after waiting for what he
considers a long time, approaches the stump, when the
explosion takes place, with serious results to himself.

A misfire should be left until one is absolutely positive
that it will not explode. Do not go near it until the
following day. Then it can be treated by making a hole
or removing the tamping toward the charge carefully,
but not bringing anything in contact with the explosive.
A small charge is then placed near the first, which, upon
exploding, generally sets off the first charge.

Placing the charge. The following is an abstract of

102 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

the "Farmer's Handbook of Explosives," published by
the Du Pont Powder Co. :

Root systems of the different forest trees are subject
to a considerable number of variations, due to the class
of tree, the soil and the depth to sheet -water. Ordi-
narily, forest trees are divided according to their root
systems into three classes. These are : Those having tap
roots; those having no tap roots but only lateral fibrous
roots; and those having both a small tap root and many
fibrous roots. When trees that normally develop heavy
tap roots are grown on soils where the ground water level
is very near the surface, the tap root will be materially
shortened or entirely wanting. Fibrous rooted trees
growing in loose soils not troubled by bad drainage, may
send heavy lateral roots to considerable depths. The
highly resinous tap roots of such trees as the pine decay
very slowly.

Several factors very materially influence the blasting
of stumps, notably of which are :

The character of the root, whether tap or fibrous.

The nature of the soil with regard to the resistance it
offers the explosive.

The state of preservation of the stump, whether sound
or partially decayed.

Freshly cut or green stumps are much harder to blast
than those from which the small fibrous roots and bark
have decayed.

Tap-rooted stumps are easier to blast than fibrous-
rooted ones. The semi-tap rooted ones are slightly more
difficult to blast than the tap-rooted ones, but not so dif-
ficult as the fibrous-rooted ones.

In doing successful and economical stump blasting all
depends on the proper location of the charge. For
stumps of the tap root variety the best method is to bore
into the tap root as shown in Fig. 21 (1). The usual
method of doing this is to start a hole with a li/2-inch
punch bar or dirt auger at a distance away from the
center of the stump equal to its diameter, inclined at an
angle of about 45 degrees towards the center until the
tap root is encountered. The earth tool should then be
exchanged for a wood auger and the hole continued to

BLASTING

103

]04 CLEAEING AND GRUBBING

three-fourths of the way through tlie tap root. Care
should be exercised not to bore entirely through this, as
in that case a good deal of the force of the dynamite
when it explodes will be wasted in the soft ground be-
yond the tap root. The charge to be employed should
vary from 1 to 6 cartridges of Red Cross Extra 40%
Dynamite, the size of the charge varying in proportion
to the size of the stump. The charge should be primed
with cap and fuse and firmly packed— the tighter the
better.

If you have a blasting machine and electric blasting
caps and you wish to avoid the necessity of boring into
tap root, we recommend placing the charges of dynamite
frmly against the tap root as in Fig. 21 (2). Chargei
should be primed with No. 6 Du Pont electric blasting
caps and firmly tamped.

When blasting out stumps of the semi-tap or lateral
root variety, that is, stumps having both tap and lateral
roots, the paramount idea is to remove not only the part
of it that projects above the ground, but to cut off and
displace the roots below plow level. It is therefore neces-
sary to place the charge well down in a central position
below the stump in order that the explosion may exercise
an equal pressure on all the roots.

A good many beginners in trying to carry out this
principle make the common mistake of calculating to get
the bottom of the borehole under the center of the stump.
As may be observed that point would be the ideal loca-
tion for the charge, but it must be taken into considera-
tion that if a charge of 3 cartridges is used in a l^^-inch
borehole, this will occupy at least. 20 inches of the length
of same, thereby leaving very little space for thorough
tamping.

Furthermore, the bulk of the charge would not be
under the center of the stump and would have the ten-
dency to blow out the loaded side only and in doing so
it would probably remove only half of the stump, leaving
the other half remaining in the ground, with practically
no soil resistance to enable the blaster to put a fresh
charge on the opposite side.

It is apparent that an effort should be made to locate

BLASTING 105

the center of the charge at a point beyond the center line
of the stump, as shown in Fig. 21 (3). To accomplish
this correctly, a iy2-inch diameter hole should be bored
at an angle of about 45 degrees inclined towards the
center of the stump. This hole should be started at a
distance away from the center of the stump equal to its
diameter, and should be of sufficient length so that the
bottom of same will be past the center line of the stump.
The primer should be made with cap and fuse.

Stumps having a large diameter can also be blasted out
by the cap and fuse method with a single charge, by
boring a hole past the center line and enlarging the end
of the same with one-quarter of a cartridge of dynamite
primed with cap and fuse. This small charge should be
pressed down to the bottom of borehole and should not
be tamped. Under no consideration should the hole he
charged until it has had time to cool off. The best plan
is to work on other stumps awhile to give the chamber
ample time to cool.

We recommend, however, that large stumps be blasted
electrically. This is done by boring auger holes either
partly through or under the principal spreading roots
and one deep hole placed under the center of stump.
See Pig. 21 (4). All charges should be primed with
No. 6 Du Pont electric blasting caps, wires oi which
should be connected together to form a circuit. The
first and last wires remaining should be attached to the
two leading wires which are connected to blasting ma-
chine. Although large stumps can be successfully
blasted by the ordinary cap and fuse method, we recom-
mend the electrical system, as there is an economy in
dynamite and results are more satisfactory.

For cypress, willows or stumps in very soft soil the
following method of blasting is recommended. Place
three to six holes (according to size of stump) 12 to 18
ins. away from stump between lateral roots at an angle
of about 75 degrees inclined towards center of same (Fig.
22). Bach hole should be charged with one or more
cartridges of Du Pont Straight NG (nitro-glycerin) 60%,
primed with electric blasting cap and fired with blasting
machine. By adopting this method, the stump will be

106

CLEARING AND GRUBBING

split into six or seven pieces and all roots extracted, leav-
ing a very slight indentation in ground.

/a ' —

/6

3

Fig. 22. Position of Charges for Large Stumps in Soft Ground

Amount of dynamite required. The following table
will enable the beginner to obtain an idea of the number
of Red Cross Extra 40% dynamite cartridges required
for various size stumps. These figures are for old but
sound stumps. Fresh, green stumps will require from
one-half more to twice as much dynamite, and partly
decayed stumps less than the amounts shown. After one
has obtained a little efficiency in doing his work he will
see that he can in the majority of cases considerably
reduce these charges.

TABLE XI

12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72

Diameter of Stumps in Inches
Approximate No. of 1 % " x 8"
Cartridges Red Cross
40% Extra Dynamite.

1%

4 6 8 10 12 14 18 22

BLASTING 107

Twenty per cent Red Cross dynamite for stumping.
In many soils, except loose sand or swanlps, it is possible
to blast out stumps more economically with 20% Red
Cross dynamite than with the 40% sttength. On the
other hand in very loose or swampy soil it is sometimes
advantageous to use Du Pont Straight Dynamite, 60%
strength. The theory is this : Sand or muck will blow
out much easier than the stump and offers little resist-
ance. Hence, unless there is a good amount of sand or
muck between the charge and the stump, the stump may
not be blown out. But 60% Straight Dynamite is so
fast and powerful that it blows the stump out before its
power is lost through the sand or muck. On the other
hand where the soil is loam or clay it offers good re-
sistance and confines the force of 40% or 20% Red Cross
Dynamite long enough to ensure getting out the stump.

Pacific Coast fir, pine and cedar stumps. In the
States of Washington, Oregon and parts of California,
where the rainfall is large and the ground in the forests
is always damp, many of the trees grow to great size —
many being 8 or 10 ft. in diameter. The roots of these
trees usually spread out near the surface and do not
grow deep into the ground as might be expected, tap
roots being extremely rare.

The object when blasting these stumps is not to split
them but to bring them out entire at one blast, with all
of the roots possible, because if the charge of explosives
is so gaged and located as to split the stump, it generally
fails to bring out all of the pieces. As the principal
object is to get out as much of the stump as possible at
a minimum cost, it is better to blast it out first and then
it can be easily split afterwards by means of a small
quantity of dynamite exploded in auger holes.

The common rule in blasting these stumps is to use
1^2 lbs. of Du Pont or Repauno Powder-Stumping L. F.
per foot of diameter, with stumps up to 4 ft., when the
subsoil is clay. For larger sizes from 2 to 2i/2 lbs. for
each foot in diameter should be used. Stumps in
gravelly or loose ground require one pound more for
each foot in diameter.

The charge of explosives is best placed when there is

108 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

16 to 24 ins. of earth between it and the bottom of the
stump. This results in the force of the explosion radiat-
ing to. all sides, liftng the stump clear of the ground,
and bringing with it the greatest length of roots. If the
charge is placed too close to the stump, the effect is to
split it, leaving the roots to be dug out at extra labor
and expense.

When these stumps are large the bottom of the bore-
hole is "sprung" or chambered until it is so large that
the increased charge required can be concentrated under
the center of the stump. The chambering is done by
exploding without tamping, first a half cartridge, then
several successive charges of from one to five cartridges
each in the bottom of the borehole. When the hole is
large enough, it is given time to cool off and is then
charged with the necessary quantity of Du Pont or
Repauno Powder-Stumping L. F. to bring out the stump.
Under no consideration should the hole he charged until
it has had time to cool off.

The best plan is to work on other stumps awhile to give
the chamber time to cool.

Bedwood and big tree stumps. The way to estimate
the quantity of Du Pont or Repauno Powder-Stumping
L. F. necessary to blast out stumps la.rger than 8 ft. in
diameter, is to square the largest diameter in feet, the
result being approximately the number of pounds re-
quired. For example, if a stump is 8 ft. in diameter the
charge of Du Pont or Repauno Powder-Stumping L. F.
should be about the square of 8, or 64 lbs. Stumps less
than 8 ft. in diameter require a little greater charge for
their size than do the larger stumps, and the rule with
them is to use as many pounds of Du Pont or Repauno
Powder-Stumping L. F. as 8 times the largest diameter
in feet. On this basis a stump 6 ft. in diameter would
need about 48 lbs. of powder. However, the successful
blasting of these large stumps depends greatly on the
judgment of the blaster, and these rules can only be
considered as a general guide. This can easily be under-
stood when it is remembered that, owing to difference in
soil or some peculiarity in the growth of the tree, it
sometimes requires the same quantity of explosives prop-

BLASTING 109

erly to bring out a stump 6 ft. in diameter as it does
another one 8 ft. in diameter.

In blasting these stumps a trench is dug large enough
to permit placing the entire charge of explosives directly
underneath the center of the stump. A little powder
blasted in holes punched with a crowbar will prove of
great assistance in digging this trench.

Bar for locating roots. Mr. J. R. Mattem, in a bulle-
tin on clearing land of stumps, published by The Insti-
tute of Makers of Explosives, advises the use of a probing
rod in locating roots, as follows:

The underground nature of each stump should be de-
termined before placing charge or even making holes.
You can do this partly by observing the roots that rise
above the surface, but mostly by probing down among
the roots with a %-in. steel needle known as a probing
rod. Every blaster should have one of these rods and
should make use of it at each stump.

Amount of dynamite used in successful blasting.
The following table taken from records of blasting in
Minnesota, Pennsylvania, Oregon, Kentucky, Michigan
and Florida is given by Mr. J. R. Mattem in a bulletin
on clearing land of stumps, prepared for The Institute
of Makers of Explosives. The stumps were blown out
effectively and successfully and the figures should serve
as a guide. The grades of dynamite used are not given.

TABLE XII

Amount of Dynamite Used

IN Successful Blasting

DEAD PINE

STUMPS

Diameter and soil

Sticks of 1% in.

dynamite or powder

10 in., Clay

1

12 " Sand

1%

12 " Loam

1

12 « Clay

1

14 " Clay

2

16 " Clay

iy2

18 " Sand

3

18 " Loam

2

18 " Clay

1%

20 " Sand

7

20 " Clay

4

24 " Loam

5

24 " Sand

51/2

110

CLEARING AND GRUBBING

Diameter and soil

Sticks of 1% in.

, dynamite or pc

iwder

24 in., Loam

41/2

24 " Clay

4

36 " Sand

10

36 " Loam

8y2

36 " Clay

71/2

40 " Clay

7

48 " Sand

13

48 " Loam

10

48 " Clay

9

60 " Clay

GREEN PINE

STUMPS

15

15 in., Loam

4

24 " Sand

DEAD OAK

STUMPS

10

8 in., Sand

1%

12 " Sand

2

12 " Loam

11/2

15 " Loam

11/2

16 " Clay

iy2

18 " Loam

3

20 " Loam

SV2

24 " Clay

3

26 " Clay

2

27 " Sand

5

27 " Loam

4V2

30 " Clay

m

30 " Sand

6

34 " Clay

41/2

38 " Clay

5%

16 in.. Clay

30 in.,
36 "

48 "
72 "

Loam
Clay
Loam
Clay

40 in., Loam

GKEEN OAK STUMPS

DEAD FIE STUMPS

GREEN FIB STUMPS

10
12
26
36

20

GREEN SPRUCE STUMPS

60 in.. Sand 32

DEAD HEMLOCK STUMPS

15 in.. Sand 2

DEAD WALNUT STUMPS

10 in.. Loam 1

15 in., Clay

GREEN GUM STUMPS

3%

BLASTING 111

DEAD GUM STUMPS

Diameter and soil Sticks of 1^4 in- dynamite or powder

24 in., Sand 4

GBEEN BLACK GUM STUMPS

16 in., Sand 5%

GEEEN SUGAR MAPLE STUMPS

16 in.. Sand 5J/2

DEAD SNAG

20 in.. Sand i%

TAP-KOOT PINE (CHAKGE IN WOOD)

6 in., Sand %

8 " Sand %

10 " Sand 1

12 " Sand 1%

15 " Sand 2

18 " Sand 2%

TAP-KOOT PINE (CHARGE AGAINST WOOD)

6 " Sand 1

8 " Sand 11/2

12 " Sand 3

15 " Sand 4

18 " Sand 5

To blast out standing trees without first cutting them
down, use about 20% more explosive than you would for
the stumps. It is better to blast big trees with several
charges, firing them electrically.

Power driven outfit for boring stumps for blasting.
The following is from Farmer's Bulletin 600, by Harry
Thompson, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. In using ex-
plosives to blast stumps from the ground in order to
prepare it for farming, it is comparatively easy to place
the charge under a stump having a semi-tap root or a
lateral system of rooting by boring or digging a hole in
the earth, to a point under the center of resistance and
deep enough to give the desired effect.

Placing the charge. When clearing land where most
of the stumps are tap-rooted, as in the longleaf-pine
regions of the South, it has been found impracticable to
place the charge in the earth outside of the stump, as this
practice, because of the small size of the lateral roots,
usually results in blowing the dirt away from one side

112

CLEARING AND GRUBBING

and only cracking and slightly loosening the stump.
To get the best results when blasting these stumps, the
charge must be placed within the tap root. To do. this,
a hole of sufficient size and deep enough to place the
explosive at the center must be bored into the stump.
The hole should be bored so deep that the center of the
charge will be at or near the center of the tap root.

Tomped £af-fh

f^Ofe. . Chor^ consists Of

from ft fo 3pouncfi Of
20% po*vr^r^

Fig. 23. Diagram Showing a Section of a Tap-Rooted Stump and
a Charge in Position for Blasting

The hole should be started into the stump from 6 to
10 ins. below the surface and should slant downward at
an angle of about 45 degrees. When stumps are blasted
in this manner most of them will be broken off below the
plow line (Fig. 23). Boring these holes by hand with a
li^-inch or li/^-inch auger is heavy work and in some
cases will require two men when a ship auger is used.

Power outfit for boring stumps. Several turpentine
companies who are using the stumps of the longleaf pine
for distillation purposes have assembled outfits for bor-

BLASTING

113

ing these holes by means of electric drills, with power
supplied by a dynamo run by a gasoline engine and
mounted upon a wagon.

The outfit consists of the following: One 5-horse-
power horizontal gasoline engine, one 3-kilowatt dynamo,
all mounted on skids or a wagon and drawn by a team ;
two electric drills using li/^-ineh augers of the required

4

■ >--
▼ 1 -t

^%A

1

1 J .,■ ,,- ■•" ,^.'* ;: - ■-. ., •

■1'-' ■ -^(^-f^'

1

i

'7 :.'
'-■■''.' ■■■

Fig. 24. Boring a Long-Leaf Pine Stump with an Electric Drill

length (Fig. 24), together with the necessary cables for
connecting. Augers -30 ins. in length are commonly
used, although it is often desirable to drill to a greater
depth. For this purpose a supply of augers 4 ft. in
length is kept on hand. The longer augers break more
frequently than the shorter ones.

It requires a crew of six to run this boring machine,
as follows : An engineer and driver, four drill men (two
for each drill), and a cable man or boy.

Method of operating. After the engine and dynamo
have beeb. securely mounted upon skids or a wagon, the

114 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

outfit is taken to the stump field, the engine is started
by the engineer, and the drills are supplied with current
from the dynamo. Each drill is operated by two men
and can be used on opposite sides of the outfit for a
distance of about 100 ft. The cable boy keeps the cables
from fouling on the stumps, logs and underbrush. He
also keeps them from kinking, which would cause the
copper wires to break.

When the hole is bored to the desired depth (see Fig.
23), the drill is removed and a handful of chips put upon
the top of the stump to show that it has been bored.

An outfit of this sort drilled 500 stumps a day on an
average during the month of May, 1913. The average
cost per stump for the holes drilled was slightly less than
3 ets. This cost takes into account repairs, depreciation,
and interest, as well as operating expenses.

An outfit of this kind could be utilized for boring the
stumps for burning.

Although the companies operating these machines do
not usually attempt to blow the stumps from far enough
below the ground surface for agricultural purposes, it is
estimated that digging away the soil near the stump to
permit boring from 6 to 10 ins. below the surface will
not cost more than 2 cts. per stump.

Results oitained in a test. In a test conducted by one
of the companies operating a boring outfit similar to the
one described, the dirt was thrown away from one side
of the stump to a depth of 12 ins. and the hole bored
into the stump at least 10 ins. below the surface. Of the
100 stumps so blasted, 97 were broken off below plow
depth. The roots of the remaining 3 stumps were easily
cut out low enough to permit cultivation. Slightly less
powder was used upon these stumps than where the holes
were bored at the surface of the ground. The total
average cost for digging, boring and blasting was 22 ets.
per stump. This cost does not include the disposal of
the stumps, as the tops and roots were used for distilla-
tion purposes.

Average cost per stump for digging, boring and blast-
ing:

BLASTING 115

Digging hole $0,020

Boring stump 0.030

Cap and fuse 0.025

Powder 0.145

Total $0,220

Grade of powder to use. It has been found by those
engaged in blasting the tap-rooted stumps that the lower
grades of nitro-glycerin powders are most economical.
The higher grades have more of a disruptive effect, tend-
ing to shatter the stump, but they do not throw it out
of the ground as well as the lower grades of powder.
There is very little difference in the effect secured by
using 20 per cent and 25 per cent powder. The 20 per
cent powder is cheaper and is generally considered the
most suitable for stump-blasting purposes.

Cost of the boring outfit. The following prices for an
electric stump-boring outfit are f. o. b. distribution point,
and freight charges should be added to the place where
used.

5 horsepower gasoline engine $115

3 liilowatt dynamo 185

2 electric drills 80

6 augers, assorted lengths 25

200 ft. of cable 20

Skids 10

Tools 25

Total $460

Cost of stumping. By using one or more electric bor-
ing outfits it is possible in a very short time to bore a
large number of stumps for burning or blasting. The
number of longleaf-pine stumps per acre that had to be
bored in the tests varied from 20 to 70. As an average
of about 500 stumps a day can be bored, from 10 to 20
acres can be covered in one day, the maximum number
of borings being possible where the stumps are thickest.

The cost of stumping with this outfit and the use of
dynamite will range from $5 to $18 per acre, provided
the wood from the stumps and roots can be sold for
enough to pay for their disposal after they blasted out.

116 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

Miscellaneous cost data on blasting stumps. The

following costs of blasting stumps are contained in 5
letters published by the Du Pont Powder Co. :

Cost per stump

( 1 ) White oak stumps ranging from 2 to 3 ft. in

diameter, 244 stumps per acre, 40% R. C.
dynamite $0.15

(2) Fir and cedar stumps 1.5 to 3 ft. in diameter,

40 in number, 40% R. C. dynamite $1.00

(3) About 100 acres containing 10,000 pine, poplar,

elm, oak and spruce stumps ranging from 10

in. to 4 ft. in size, 40% R. C. dynamite $0.10

(4) About 12 acres containing 50 gimi, hickory

white and red oak stumps ranging from 12

in. to 36 in. in size $0.20

(5) Pine stumps (154) blasted for the recovery of

turpentine $0.33

Cost of clearing and grubbing a reservoir in Mary-
land. {Engineering mid Contracting, Oct. 10, 1906.)
On a reservoir site of 15 acres, all trees and brush were
cleared off and stumps grubbed out at a cost of $107 per
acre. The trees were generally removed by blasting.
Laborers were paid $1.50 a day.

Methods and costs of clearing, hand grubbing and
blasting. The following, by Daniel J. Hauer, is taken
from Engineering and Contracting, Feb. 27, 1907 : The
work to be described was done by contract in 1893 for
the purpose of opening up an avenue in the suburb of a
large eastern city.

The area covered was nine acres, the trees being rather
closely spaced, and the undergrowth, without being rank,
was of long standing. The trees ranged in size from
6 ins. to 3 ft. in diameter, the average being about 20 ins.
Everything smaller than 6 ins. was classed as "brush"
and the stumps were grubbed with a mattock. The
stumps of trees were blasted. The number of trees cut
was over 1,100, while the actual number of stumps blasted
was 1,212, or 135 per acre. The trees were first cut
down, and the brush and leaf wood piled and burnt.
Then the blasting commenced, while choppers sawed and
split up the trees into eordwood and sawlogs. The
timber consisted of oak, hickory, chestnut,, and a scatter-

BLASTING 117

ing of a few other varieties. The work was done in the
spring of the year, the weather being good.

The tools used for cutting and grubbing were as fol-
lows: Thirty-three axes, 29 mattocks, 30 shovels, one
hatchet, one hand-saw, one 4-ft. cross-cut saw, two 6-ft.
cross-cut saws, two files, two water buckets and two
grindstones.

For blasting the following were used: One churn
drill, one large auger and one bucket. These tools cost
about $80, which could be charged at a rate of $9 per
acre to the job.

Foremen were paid $2.50 per 10-hour day and laborers,
mostly Italians, were paid $1.25. One foreman looked
after the chopping and grubbing, consequently his salary
is divided between these items, while a second foreman
gave his time exclusively to the blasting.

Cost of clearing. The chopping down of the trees and
brushes took about 13 days, the cost being as follows :

Foremen $ 20.00

Laborers ' 149.61

Total $169.61

This makes a cost of $18.84 per acre. For eight days,
as the above work was going, on, another crew of men
were piling and burning brush and grubbing the small
stubs and stumps. This work was done at the following
cost:

Foreman $ 10.00

Laborers 129.74

Total $139.74

Or a cost of $15.53 per acre, and a total cost per acre
for both chopping and cleaning up, of $34.37. This can
be divided as follows :

Foreman $ 3.33

Laborers $31.04

When this much of the work was done a foreman and
a small crew began the blasting of stumps, the cost of
which is given below. At the same time the chopping

118 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

gang began to cut the tree trunks up into cordwood and
sawlogs, while the cleaning gang was set to grubbing the
roots and the remains of the stumps after the blasters.
The sawlogs and cordwood were hauled away under an-
other contract.

Cost of cordwood. The making of cordwood took 8
days and cost:

Foreman $10.00

Laborers 81.25

Total 91.25

This was a cost of $10.14 per acre. Unfortunately the
wood was not corded up before being hauled away, so
no accurate record was made of the amount, but there
were between 175 and 200 cords, so that the cost of mak-
ing cordwood was about $0.50 per cord.

Cost of stumping. The blasting of the stumps took
25 days, the cost for labor, explosives, etc., being $662.28,
or a cost of $73.59 per acre. These costs will be analyzed
below.

The cost of grubbing the roots after blasting was as
follows :

Foreman $ 40.00

Laborers 277.36

Total $317.36

This makes a cost per acre of $35.26.
The cost per stump was as follows :

Foreman at $2.50 a day $0,061

Laborers at $1.25 a. day 0.096

Dynamite (40%) at 15 cts. per lb 0.156

Judson powder at 10 cts 0.217

Fuse (dbl. tape) at 49 cts. per 100 ft 0.020

Caps at 75 cts. per 100' 0.008

Total for blasting $0,548

Grubbing 0.262

Total per stump $0,810

Summary of cost per acre. From the above we obtain
the total cost per acre for the 9 acres:

BLASTING 119

Per acre

Chopping $ 18.84

Grubbing and clearing 15.53

Making cord wood 10.14

Blasting 73.73

Grubbing after blasting 35.26

Grinding axes 0.65

Tools 9.00

Total $163.25

Dynamite, 40 per cent strength, and Judson or Con-
tractors' powder were used as explosives, some of each
being placed in the same hole. The stumps were not so
large, except in a few cases, that one charge placed under
it, by churning a hole with the drill and auger beneath
the stump, and then loading it, did not either blow the
stump out or shatter it so that the grubbers were able
to handle it. For a week only dynamite was used, and
although some of the stumps blasted at that time were
among the smallest, yet the blasting was done at less cost
than when the two explosives were used.

Method and cost of blasting 3,500 stumps on Long
Island. {Engineering and Contracting, May 13, 1908.)
The Long Island R. R. bought a tract of land, in 1905,
in Suffolk county on Long Island, in order to carry on
experimental agricultural worli. The tract was situated
in the waste lands of the island and the first work to be
done was to clear it of timber. A force of men was put
to work cutting down, the trees and undergrowth, and
this work was followed by the stump blasting.

The blasting crew consisted of two men only, except
for the three last days of the work, when a third man
was employed to hasten the finishing of the job. The
work was done during the latter part of the summer and
the fall of the year, good weather prevailing most of
the time.

One man employed was accustomed to handling ex-
plosives and had had experience in blasting stumps. He
was paid $3.50 for a 10-hour day. The second man was
a common laborer and was paid $1.50 per day. The
third man, used for three days, also had handled ex-
plosives. He was paid $3 per day.

120 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

In all 10 acres of land were cleared. The blasting
gang made the hole under the stump and charged it,
setting off the charge, but the work of cleaning up after
the blast was. done by other men. The stumps were
mainly white oak and chestnut, varying in size from 18
ins. to 71/2 ft. in diameter. Many of the stumps ran
from 4 to 41/2 ft. in diameter. Bach acre of ground was
measured off and a careful record kept of the number
of stumps blown on each acre.

The following table shows the number of stumps
blasted and the amount of dynamite used:

Number Lbs.
Acre No. Stumps Dynamite

1 293 145

2 310 152

3 301 169

4 270 150

5 280 211

6 305 191

7 285 178

8 337 188

9 334 198

10 797 446

Total 3512 2031

The soil was a light loam with sand or gravel under-
lying it. Naturally the amounts of dynamite used per
stump varied with the size of the stump. Small stumps
up to 4 ft. in diameter needed V2 lb. of dynamite.
Stumps from 4 to 6 ft. in diameter needed from 1 to 3
lbs., while the largest stumps, measuring from 6 to 8 ft.
in diameter needed from 3 to 4 lbs. of dynamite. The
largest stump blown was a chestnut 71/2 ft. in diameter
which took 3V2 lbs. of dynamite. It will be noticed that
the average per stump was not quite 0.6 lb. All the
dynamite used was 40%.

In blasting the stumps the helper made a hole with
an auger or bar under the stump, so the charge would
be close up to the stump and near the center. The djna-
miter prepared a large number of cartridges with fuse
and caps in them in advance, so that when a number of
holes had been made, all he had to do was to place the

BLASTING 121

charge and tamp up the hole. Double tape fuse was used
to put off the blast. The fuse was cut to lengths to ex-
plode the load within a given number of seconds, just
enough time being allowed for a man to run to a safe
distance. For most of the stumps, fuse a foot and a
half in length was used, and when the end was split to
allow of easy lighting, it took 30 seconds for this fuse
to burn to the charge, hence this was known as a "30
second length. ' ' Care was taken to use enough dynamite
to blow out the entire stump, but not to waste the ex-
plosives. Small stumps were blown out whole, but the
larger ones were split up by the blast so they could be
easily handled.

The number of stumps blasted per day varied some-
what, according to the size of the stumps and the dif-
ficulties encountered. The best day's work for two men
was 110 stumps, while on other days they did 97, 60,
and 99, the average being 84 for two men, for the job.
On one day that three men worked 160 stumps were
blasted. In clearing an adjoining piece of land one man
by himself blasted in one day 100 stumps, but he had
prepared the charges the day previous. The cost of
blasting the stumps for the 10 acres was :

Labor —

1 man, 40 days, at $3.50' $140.00

1 man, 40 days, at $1.50 60.00

1 man, 3 days, at $3.00 9.00

2,031 lbs. 40% dynamite at 15 cts 304.65

3,600 caps at 75 cts. per 100 27.00

7,000 ft. D. T. Fuse at 45 cts. per 100 . . 31.50

Total .$572.15

This gives a cost per stump of the following :

Labor $0,059

Dynamite 0.086

Caps 0.008

Fuse 0.009

Total $0,162

The cost per acre was $57.22.

This work was done under the direction of Mr. H. B,

122 CLEARING AND GHUBBING

FuUerton, special agent of the Long Island R. R. Co.

Method and cost of blasting 1,100 stumps in New
Jersey. {Engineering and Contracting, June 3, 1908.)
In grubbing stumps from land, one of the most economic
methods is by blasting, provided care and judgment are
shown in the use of explosives. The tendency seems to
be to use a larger amount of explosives than is necessary.
Then, too, different kinds of explosives are sometimes
used in the same charge, such as dynamite and Judson
powder. This should not be done. But one kind of
powder should be used in a hole. For small and medium
sized stumps dynamite will give the best results, but
Judson powder will do efficient work on large stumps,
and, at times for very large stumps, black powder is the
cheapest to use.

The charge should be placed well up under the stump
and as near the center of the stump as possible. A bar
is generally the best tool for making the hole. When
only one charge is placed under the stump it is more
economical to use fuse and a cap. It is possible in stump
blasting to use single tape fuse, but, if the ground is very
wet, it may misfire. Under such conditions it is better
to use double tape fuse. When several charges are
placed under one stump, it is always advisable to use
electrical exploders, so that the charges will be expoded
simultaneously. For a single charge, electrical fuses are
too expensive.

In the job, the cost of which we give below, dynamite
was used exclusively, and caps and fuse were used for-
most stumps, but electrical exploders were used on some,
as several charges were placed under some of the largest
stumps. There were 1,100 stumps blasted from 4 acres
of land, the job being in eastern New Jersey. The trees
had been cut about 2 years, and were mostly white oak
and hickory. They varied in size from 4 ins. to 6 ft.,
the average size of the 1,100 stumps being about 15 ins.
in diameter.

The dynamite used was 40 per cent. The ground was
full of large boulders, and more fuse (single tape) was
used than would have been required if the ground had
not been full of stones. The long fuse was necessary in

BLASTING 123

order to allow the men time to get away from the flying
pieces of stone. Two men only were employed. One
man handled the dynamite and the other prepared the
holes. These men did nothing towards cleaning up the
stumps after they were blasted.

The cost of the labor was as follows:

Dynamiter, 19 days at $3.50 $66.50

Helper, 19 days at $1.50 28.50

Total $95.00

The cost of the explosives was:

850 lbs. dynamite, at 15 cts $127.50

1,300 caps at 75 cts. for 100 9.75

1,300 ft. S. T. fuse, at 45 cts. per 100 5.85

300 short electrical exploders, at 6 cts. . . 18.00

Total $161.10

The total cost for the 4 acres was $256.10, giving a
cost per acre of $64.02.
The cost per stump was:

Labor $0,086

Dynamite 0.116

Caps 0.009

Fuse 0.005

Exploders 0.016

Total $0,232

The average amount of dynamite used per stump was
0.77 lb.

This is an economical job of blasting, both as to labor,
costs and explosives.

The work was done under the direction of Mr. Oscar
Kissam of Halesite, Long Island, N. Y.

Blasting' stumps in Kentucky. Mr. George Roberts,
in Bulletin 154 of the Kentucky Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, gives some cost data on removing stumps
by blasting, which is of special interest as an account
was kept of the amount of explosive used on each stump.

In the following table is given the number, size and
kind of stumps removed from the London, Ky., field,

124

CLEARING AND GRUBBING

together with the amount of dynamite and labor required.
This field contained about 6 acres and had been cleared
about 8 years, long enough, so that small stumps of 10
ins. and less could be broken out quite readily with an
ax and grubbing hoe. Bach stick of dynamite weighed

1/2 lb.

TABLE XIII

Size and Kind of Stump Sticks Dynamite Used
12 in. dead oalc 2

16
15
16
13
30
10

8
12
13
30
11
18
12
20
34

9
14
16
14
12
30
24
30

38
20
24
14
14
12
22
27
15
14
30
14
11
14
30
18

dead oak 1%

dead oak 1%

dead pine 1%

dead oak 1 %

dead oak .- 5%

dead oak 1%

dead oak %

dead oak 1%

dead oak 2

dead oak , 4%

dead oali 1%

dead oak 3

dead oak 1%

dead oak 3%

dead oak 4%

dead oalc 1%

dead pine 2

green oak 3

dead oak 2

dead oak 1%

dead oak iy^

dead oak 3

dead oak 1st shot 3%

2nd shot 2

dead oak 5%

dead oali 3i^

dead oak 3^

green oak 3

green oak 3

dead oak 11^

dead oak 4%

dead oalc 4%

dead oak 2

green oak 4

dead oak 5

dead oak 2%

dead oak I14

dead oak 2%

dead oak 6

dead oak 31^

BLASTING 125

Size and Kind of Stump Sticks Dynamite Used

20 in., dead snag * 4%

8 " dead oak 1

16 " dead oak 3

16 " dead pine 21^

27 " dead oak 5

6 " dead oak %

8 " dead oak 1

13 " dead oak 2%

16 " dead oak 3%

15 " dead oak 2%

6 " dead oak 1

10 " dead pine 1%

15 " dead oalt 3

16 " dead oak 3

24 " dead oak 5

16 " green black gum 5*4

13 " dead oak 2

8 " dead oak 1

16 " dead oak 2%

13 " dead oak 1%

24 " dead gum 1st shot 2

2nd shot 2

16 " dead oak IVa

10 " dead oak 1%

12 " dead oak II/2

6 " dead oak %

8 " dead oak 1

14 " dead oak 2

16 " dead oak 2%

12 " dead oak 1

10 " dead pine 1

16 " green sugar maple 5%

12 " dead oak 2%

12 " dead oak 2

28 " dead oak 1st shot 4

2nd shot 3

12 " dead oak 1^^

26 " dead oak 2

18 " dead oak 2

8 " dead oak 1

16 " dead oak 2i^

15 " dead oak 2

17 " dead oak 2%

16 " dead oak 2%

13 " dead oak 2

10 " dead oak 1

12 " dead oak 2

16 " dead oak 2%

12 " dead oak 2

14 " dead oak 2%

126 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

Size and Kind of Stump Sticks Dynamite Used

8 in., dead oak 1

8 " dead oalc 1

14 " dead oak 2V2

16 " dead oak 2

12 " dead oak 1%

8 " green oak 2

16 " dead oak 2

12 " dead oak 11/2

15 " green gum 3%

15 " dead oak 2%

16 " dead oak 3

24 " dead oaJc 5

18 " dead oak 3

15 " dead oak 3

16 " dead oak 2^^

* More dynamite is required to Mow a tree or sna^ than to blow a stump
of the same diameter, because of the greater weight to be lifted.

Average diameter of stumps, 16 inches.

Total number of sticks of dynamite required, 265.

Average number of sticks required per stump, 2.6.

Time required for one man, 5 days.

Average time required per stump, 30 minutes.

Summary :

132.5 lbs. dynamite at 18 cts _. .$23.85

Caps and fuse ". . 2.35

5 days' Labor at $1.50 7.50

Total, 102 stumps at 33 cts $33.70

Stumps Blown on Experiment Station Farm, Lexington, Ky.

Diameter Sticks Dynamite

No. Kind of Stump Inches Used

1 Green Hackberry 20 5

2 Green Hackberry 10 5

3 Green Hackberry 7 6

4 Dead Hackberry 11 4

5 Green Elm 5 3

6 Dead Walnut 12 2

7 Dead Walnut 14 11/2

8 Green Cherry 10 2y2

9 Green Maple 12 1%

10 Dead Osage Orange 7 2

11 Dead Osage Orange 15 2%

12 Dead Osage Orange 13 2

13 Dead Osage Orange 11 2%

14 Green Oak 45 21

15 Green Oak 48 25

16 Green Oak 43 24

BLASTING 127

It will be seen by referring to the foregoing table that
it is considerably more expensive to blow green stumps
than dead ones. While the lot is a miscellaneous one,
and contains kinds of stumps that are not generally
found on farms, it brings out plainly the fact that green
stumps require a great deal more dynamite than dead
ones. Also a great deal more labor is required because
much time is consumed in cutting the green roots, both
before and after the explosion.

The average diameter of the 9 green stumps in the
table is 22 ins. ; the number of sticks of dynamite re-
quired was 93; the time consumed in blowing them was
18% hrs. for two men whose wages were $2.75 per day;
the fuse and caps cost 60 cts. Thus the total cost of
blowing the stumps was $14.06, or $1.56 per stump.

The cost of blowing the 3 large green oak stumps was :
Dynamite, caps and fuse $6.70, and labor $3.85, a total
of $10.55, or $3.52 per stump of average diameter of 45
inches.

While these figures seem high, yet there is no other
method by which they could be removed so cheaply.

The amount of dynamite required to blow stumps of
the same kind in the same soil does not vary directly
with the diameter, but more nearly with the square of
the diameter, or, in other words, with the area of a cross
section of the stump. The area of the cross section of a
stump 48 ins. in diameter is 16 times as great as the
area of a cross section of a stump 12 ins. in diameter.
However, only judgment developed by experience can
determine how much of the explosive shall be used in a
given case.

The cost of blowing green stumps is from two and one-
half to three times as great as for dead ones. While each
individual will have to determine for himself whether he
can afford the cost of removing the stumps, it may not
be out of place to offer some suggestions.

Land would have to yield very high profits to pay for
blowing green stumps. For ordinary land it seems that
the most feasible plan is to plant it to some cultivated
crop for say two years, during which the weeds and
sprouts will be kept down. Sow to grass then, and

128 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

pasture it for three or four years. Sheep are very ef-
fective in keeping down weeds and sprouts. What the
animals do not keep down should be kept down with the
hoe. "When the small stumps are, rotten enough to re-
move with grubbing hoe and ax, the larger ones may be
blown at a cost that will not be prohibitive. One point
seems clear, and that is, that when stumps are to be
removed, the cheapest methods is by the use of dynamite.

Grubbing reservoir site. The following is taken from
Engineering Record, Jan. 15, 1916 : As a preliminary
to admitting water to the Kensico reservoir of the Catskill
water supply system for New York City the contractor
was required to clear the site of the huge basin, which
will flood 2,218 acres of land, to a line 30 ft. outside of
the flow line. How the work was done was described by
George A. Winsor, section engineer of the Board of
Water Supply, in a paper presented at the last con-
vention of the New England Waterworks Association.

Under the specifications, grubbing included all de-
signated areas within the 30-ft. margin of the reservoir,
the reservoir bottom wherever the depth below the flow
line is 35 ft. or less, and other areas wherever ordered.
The grubbing consisted of the removal of all stumps and
roots larger than 2 ins. in diameter to a depth of 6 ins.
below the surface of the ground, and all holes left after
grubbing the margins of the reservoir and its bottom to
a depth of 10 ft. below the flow line had to be satis-
factorily refilled. The principal natural timber growths
around the basin consist of oak, maple, whitewood, birch,
hickory, elm, locust, ash, dogwood, cedar, chestnut, and
many fruit trees of different kinds. The chestnuts had
been killed by the "bark disease."

Most of the clearing on the areas to be grubbed was
done during the years 1910 and 1911, and the stumps of
the trees were cut off close to the ground. For this
reason the old method of pulling the stumps with a
stump-puller of capstan type, pulling the stump with the
tree as a lever, using a block and fall, or the use of the
caterpillar traction engine as used at Ashokan reservoir,
were not adapted to the work at the Kensico reservoir.

The grubbing was sublet by the reservoir contractor.

BLASTING 129

and a portion of it was again sublet. The method em-
ployed by the sub-contractors was as follows : All small
stumps from 2 ins. to about 5 ins. in diameter were
grubbed by hand, using axes and mattocks, and all
sprouts were cut off of the larger stumps, which were
then removed with the aid of an explosive. Sixty per
cent dynamite was used most of the time, the quantity
depending upon the size of the stump, variety of tree,
and the quality of soil around the roots. Many areas
covered with a thick growth of small locusts were en-
countered; these were piiUed with a pair of horses or
yoke of oxen with a chain hitched around the tree;
usually a little grubbing was done on one side only.
This proved to be a very effective and rapid method for
removing these species of trees when not too large. .

The contractor usually worked about three weeks after
a monthly estimate on the grubbing and blasting, as he
found it required the remainder of the month to clean up
and burn the brush and stumps before his next succeed-
ing monthly estimate. Work was carried on through the
winter months with very little interruption, it being a
very mild winter with but little snow ; during the spring
months, which were very dry, the contractor was for-
bidden to build fires because of the fire hazard to city
property adjacent to the clearing limits. He continued
with the grubbing operations and burned the stumps
later when the grass was green and the weather suitable.

A daily record of the dynamite used was kept by the
contractors for the estimate months, and the quantities
used per acre have been computed as follows : Maximum
dynamite used, September, 1914, 170 lbs. per acre ; mini-
mum dynamite used, January, 1915, 44 lbs. per acre;
average dynamite used, for entire work, 95 lbs. per acre.

It was further demonstrated that it required less ex-
plosive to shatter a stump when the ground was frozen
than when there was "no frost. In the former case very
little earth was disturbed by the blast ; while in the latter
case a large hole was made. A hole was made in the
ground with an iron bar, and the explosive was placed
under the stump ; fuse exploders were always used.

The contract price for grubbing, which included re-

130 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

filling holes, disposing of stumps and brush, and all ex-
penses incidental to the work, was $100 per acre. Mr.
Winsor believes that the method employed in doing this
work was the most economical and the best, under the
circumstances. However, had it been possible to do the
clearing and grubbing in one operation, the latter would
have cost the contractor less, as there would be a con-
siderable saving in both labor and explosive if one of the
other mentioned methods had been employed.

Methods and costs of clearing sites for real estate
development on Long Island. The following, by Myron
H. Lewis, is taken from Engineering and Contracting,
Feb. 19, 1913, and relates to the methods and cost of
clearing about four acres of land: The land consisted
of a heavily wooded tract, in which lumber had been cut
a number of times in past years, leaving some very large
stumps and second and third growth timber. There
were in all about 2,400 trees and stumps of which about
650 were removed by blasting, the remaining being re-
moved by grubbing and a stump-pulling machine.

The blasting required about 1,000 lbs. of dynamite,
averaging aboiit 2 lbs. of dynamite to each stump. The
method pursued in the clearing was as follows : All the
standing timber was first cut down and removed to ad-
joining property to be later cut up into cordwood. The
smaller timber was then removed by grubbing and with
the stump-pulling machine. While this work was in
progress holes were being bored with crowbars and augers
into the roots of the stump to receive the dynamite.
Charges were placed, and after about 10 to 15 stumps
were prepared, they were fired by means of an electric
battery 300 ft. distant from the nearest charge. After
the explosions, men were set to work immediately with
grub-hoes to take out the roots which still remained cling-
ing to the ground, although the stumps themselves were
shattered into fragments. The rehioval of these remains
proved costly on account of the spring and clinging na-
ture of the roots.

The work complete, including cutting of the timber
and taking out 2,400 stumps, cost about $1,000, exclud-
ing insurance and profit. The soil was a very stiff clay,

BLASTING 131

all of which had to be loosened with a pick before it could
be shoveled. The cost of removing stumps was somewhat
less than 50 cts. per stump. Some of the largest stumps
cost over $2 apiece.

Cost of clearing land for a large estate on Long
Island. The following, by A. S. Malcomson, is taken
from Engineering and Contracting, March 5, 1913 :
The work was clearing land for a large estate at Oyster
Bay, Long Island. The writer believes the information
to be as accurate as is possible on this kind of work. The
data have been compiled from a record kept daily of the
amount of material used; number and general size of
stumps, and time consumed, with a certain allowance
made for lost time which occurs on all work. Pig. 25
shows the form of daily report made out by the blaster
on the work.

The cost of this work was 46 cts. per stump, exclusive
of overhead expenses, but this figure would perhaps be
increased on jobs of less consequence when dynamite
would be bought in smaller quantities. When this ma-
terial was disposed of by the men connected with the
estate, the ground was ready for cultivation. The fol-
lowing are the itemized expenses of the work:

Blaster and helper $ 140.00

Two laborers, boring holes 94.50

Insurance 21.50

5,200 lbs. 40% Bed Cross dynamite at $0.12% . . . 650.00

1,150 caps at $0.7225 per lOO , 8.30

2,800 ft. fuse at $0.4185 per 100 ft 11.76

1,719 electric fuses at $2,975 per 100 51.05

Demonstration and supervision 50.00

Total $1,027.11

There were 277 clumps containing 812 stumps. There
were 290 large single stumps and 695 small single stumps.
This makes a total of 1,797 stumps. In addition 451
"miscellaneous blasts" were fired to split up butts, re-
move snags, "priming" or, chambering, etc.

Cost of stumping in Minnesota. Mr. A. J. McGuire
gives the following in Bulletin 134 of the University of
Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station: The

132

CLEARING AND GRUBBING

DAILY REPORT
i Malcomson, Inc., Preeiiort, L.I.

Order No.. 857...

REPORT NO

Pounds of Dynamite

■II

■3

II

Number of elec-
tpc fuses

Hi

z'oS-S

it

It

25%

iO%

60%

4'

•feS'

Priijiing clumps

PiniBhine clumps

Clumps

yotala

Priming stumpB

a.'

B
• 3

!»■
- 1

.3 3

a E

11
s s

Finiehing stumps

High stumps

Low stumps

Small stumps

Splitting butts
Totab

Boulders

Miscellaneous

Grand Totals

Material on hand

1

Wealhw

Material received today

Totals

Temperature:

Material used today

Remarks:

Balance on hand

1

Estimate of material necessary

1

for completion

Time Record— Hours

D.W.N.

C.N.

Outside Help

Remarks

Time blastjnt;

Special time (specify)

Time allowed— not .working

Total

Time not allowed {spBcIfy)

Time on other orders

Grand Total

Use reverse side for Remarks or Communications.

Fig. 25. Form of Daily Report

stump is a better unit of cost than the acre. The stumps
can be counted and a fairly accurate estimate of the cost
per acre based upon this count. At the North Central
Experiment Farm, three years after the trees were cut,
stumps averaging 14.3 ins. in diameter required 1.35 lbs.
of 25 and 40 per cent dynamite per stump. Jack-pine,
poplar, Norway pine and white pine stumps were re-
moved from medium sandy soil at an average cost of 25.5
cts. per stump. This cost per stump included the cost

BLASTING 133

of piling and burning all brush and down timber as well
as the stumps. The 25 per cent dynamite costs $11.50,
and the 40 per cent dynamite, $12.50 per hundred
pounds. Labor was included at $1.50 per day for the
man employed and $3 per day for a man and team and
averaged 7.5 cts. per stump. The cost of the explosive,
including fuse and caps, was 18 cts. per stump.

In another clearing on the same farm, poplar stumps
14.1 ins. in diameter were removed from a clay loam soil
at a total cost of 18.4 cts. per stump. The labor cost
was 5 cts. and the explosive 13.4 cts. per stump. An
average of 0.93 lb. of 40 per cent dynamite per stump
was used. There was practically no brush or down
timber. The trees had been cut four years before the
removal of the stumps. In a third clearing at this farm,
1.84 lbs. of 60 per cent dynamite per stump were used
in removing mixed hardwood stumps averaging 18.7 ins.
in diameter. Other stumps of the same kind and size
in this field were removed with 1.74 lbs. of 27 per cent
dynamite. The trees had been cut from two to three
years before the removal of the stumps. The soil was a
clay loam with a heavy clay subsoil.

In all these clearings, the main expenditure was for
explosives. The minimum amount of labor is involved
when explosives are used exclusively. If the .clearings
had been large, the use of the stump-puller with the ex-
plosives would have reduced the cost per acre. On the
small number of acres actually cleared the total cost
would not have been reduced by the aid of a stump-
puller.

In these clearings the stumps were those of medium-
sized trees cut about three years before this work was
done. The- work and expense on the three clearings are
summarized by the following statement:

Total, 905 stumps (on 8.7 acres) ; average diameter,
16.6 ins. The trees has been cut 3 years before.

112 hrs. making holes $ 16.75

112 hrs. blasting 16.79

145 hrs. piling and burning 21.75

60 hrs. piling and burning 9.00

Total labor $ 64.29

134 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

Explosive (1,017 lbs.), fuse, and caps $141.39

Total labor and explosives $205.68

Cost per acre 23.64

Cost per stump 0.23

Holes made per ten-hour day, one man 89

Stumps blasted per ten-hour day, one man 89

Blasted stumps piled and burned per ten-hour day, two men
and team 137

Costly highway clearing in dense forests is noted in
Engineering Record, Jan. 2, 1915. In running lines for
the new State highway between Portland, Ore., and As-
toria, the surveyors had to note the position of trees with
as much care as rock excavation is measured in ordinary
location surveys. One of the 12-ft. stumps which was
moved from the road shown required the use of 150 lbs.
of 40 per cent dynamite and occupied the workmen for
a week. To get it out of the way cost at least $75, not
including the expensive rock fill which had to be made
in the hole it left.

The clearing cost on this work ranges from $100 to
$200 per acre, and averages about $150, while the grub-
bing charge is kept down, by carefully locating the line
between trees, to $1.50 per square rod. The width of
slashing depends upon the amount of sun and wind that
must be admitted to the road, and, therefore, indirectly
upon the rainfall. Usually a 60-ft. right of way is
slashed, but for this road a 40-ft. width was considered
sufficient.

Clearing and grubbing from Portland toward the coast
averages about $2,000 per linear mile of road, and in
some sections easily amounts to $3,000 per mile. For the
most part this is being built now as a good earth road,
but later on it is intended to lay on it a 16-ft. pavement.

This division of the Oregon State highway work is
under the supervision of L. Griswold, assistant highway
engineer.

Stump removal investigation conducted by the Uni-
versity of Wisconsin. The following is given by Carl
D. Livingston, in Engineering and Contracting, July 19,

BLASTING 135

1916: The land clearing special which has just com-
pleted a demonstration tour of Northern Wisconsin has
established certain points regarding stump removal
which are of interest to contractors who have to do clear-
ing in ditch and railway grading work. The writer, who
organized and managed the tour, made a special study of
different methods employed by the various co-operators,
including horse-power, hand-power and dynamite, each
working separately as well as in combination with each
other. The following points were established to be good
practice in land clearing:

Where the stumps are large it was found that, by using
one-third to one-fourth the amount of dynamite necessary
to blast a stump entirely out of the ground, it was pos-
sible to crack it into several pieces so that they covild be
pulled. Stumps may be pulled easier and quicker when
cracked. The hole left is not nearly so large as when
either pulled whole or blown out entirely. The roots are
cleaner, are easier to handle, dry quicker and are more
easily burned.

On the loams and clays it was found that 20 per cent
Red Cross dynamite would do the same work as 40 per
cent at a saving of 25 per cent on the dynamite bill. On
the lighter soils the 30 per cent grades did as good work
as the high kinds and cost about 10 per cent less. Forty
per cent grades on higher are only needed on dry sands.

Electrical blasting was found to be quicker to operate,
and far more safe than the old cap and fuse method. By
the use of a blasting machine many charges may be de-
tonated at the same time, either under the same or dif-
ferent stumps. This method enables the charge to be
placed where they are most needed. The holes left are
usually smaller and the cost is not greater when the re-
sults are taken into consideration.

Stump pilers are necessary to efficient land clearing
where mechanical pullers are used. When they are
equipped with automatic tripping devices, piling may be
done at the same time as the stumps are being burned.
When stumps are dropped on a burning pile a more
complete bum is secured; some dirt may be left on the

136 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

roots and they may be much greener and still burn. The
jar of falling stumps is like continually poking- a grate
fire.

Though essentially a land clearing demonstration, ex-
hibitions of ditch blowing with dynamite were given.
Beyond all doubt, explosives are extremely valuable in
certain kinds of ditching work. No matter how wet,
brushy or stony the ditch line may be, if sticks of 60
per cent straight nitro-glycerine dynamite can be located
within 18 ins. of each other in wet ground, a serviceable
open ditch can be made by the detonation of only one
cartridge.

CHAPTER VII

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS

Cost of Stump-pullers, as given in Mr. R. T. Dana's
Handbook of Construction Plant, is as follows: A one-
horse operated machine suitable for pulling trees and
stumps up to 8 ins. in diameter, fitted with two steel
double power pulleys and 100 ft. of %-in. cable, weighs
490 lbs., and costs $40.

A two-horse machine with a listed capacity of 22 tons,
with 100 ft. of %-in. cable, weighs 475 lbs., and costs $35.
The same outfit with one steel double power pulley has
a capacity of 44 tons, weighs 535 lbs., and costs $45 ;
with two pulleys it has a capacity of 66 tons, weighs 595
lbs., and costs $50.

A machine with a capacity of 30 tons, with 210 ft. of
%-in. cable, weighs 775 lbs., and costs $85 ; with one
pulley, having a capacity of 60 tons, weighs 855 lbs., and
costs $90 ; with two pulleys, having a capacity of 90 tons,
weighs 930 lbs., and costs $110.

The pullers having 50-, 100- and 150-ton capacities
with the outfits heretofore described, weigh respectively
1,160, 1,260 and 1,360 lbs., and cost $120, $145 and $155.

The capacities and prices of the largest machines are
as follows:

Capacity 63 tons, with 100 ft. li-^-in. cable, weight
1,450 lbs., price $145; with 200-ft. cable, weight 1,650
lbs., price $200.

Capacity 125 tons, with one pulley, 100 ft. 1%-in.
cable, weight 1,600 lbs., price $175 ; with 200 ft. of cable,
weight 1,800 lbs., price $225.

Capacity 185 tons, 2 pulleys, 120 ft. l^-in. cable,
weight 1,750 lbs., price $200; with 220 ft. of cable,
weight 1,950 lbs., price $255.

For taking up the slack rope, cam take-ups are used.

137

138 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

These cost from $4.50 to $25. Root and stump hooks
cost from $7 to $12. ■

The largest sizes of these machines are often used to
move houses and buildings.

Man-power stump-puller. (From Bulletin 163 of the
University of Minnesota Agricultural Station by Mr. M.
J. Thompson.) In 1914 several models of man-power
pullers were tested. In operating these machines, two
men can work to better advantage than one. Three men
were employed, two at the bar and one at the stump.
The latter used the ax and mattock, releasing the large
roots in order to start the stump, and removing the dirt
after pulling. One man could, of course, do all three
things but at much greater expenditure of time and
energy. The larger stumps were cracked with dynamite
before pulling.

Three men were employed, although two men or one
man could have done the work, but at great disadvantage.
Dynamite was used only on the larger stumps and then
only to split them. The size of the stumps was esti-
mated, not measured, as in all other work. For the sake
of convenience in comparing with other methods, it may
be assumed that the average diameter was 12 ins. here.
In the comparisons made, some qualifications are re-
quired. The dynamite charge is high, because the
stumps were blasted green. The daily output per man
and per machine was double for the horse-power ma-
chine, but it is only fair to say that the work was done
so hastily by the demonstrators that it was much less
complete and less satisfactory than with the man-power
machine. Note that the total cost per stump is less for
the man-power machine, as less dynamite was used. The
labor cost is much higher.

Several man-power stump-pullers are on the market,
many of them of the same type, best described by saying
they are like a stretcher for woven wire. Several things
may be said in their favor. For the man who is without
sufficient means to purchase a team and dynamite, but
is under the necessity of making an immediate clearing
and is obliged to capitalize his own labor in making a
start, a man-power machine is very helpful. It works

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 139

nicely where the growth has been very dense with a
consequent tree diameter of from 6 to 8 ins. ; in a sandy
soil, with stumps 12 ins. and less in diameter; or in a
locality where cheap, unskilled labor is available. It is
suitable for low lands where the horse-power machines or
dynamite can be used only with difficulty and where the
water is near the surface of the ground, thus making a
shallow root system. For trees over 12 ins. in diameter,
varying, of course, with the species of tree, the stage of
decay, and the type and condition of the soil, dynamite
is either necessary or very helpful in supplementing the
work of the hand-power puller.

However, horse labor is cheaper than man labor and
explosive is usually cheaper than either. While the ac-
tual cost of removal is somewhat less in either case than
with dynamite, the cost of piling is very much higher.
Moreover the showing becomes still more favorable for
dynamite a few years after the land has been cut over
and the stumps have had time to decay.

No charge has been made for interest on investment,
taxes, or depreciation in estimating the cost of clearing
with the stump-puller, or for the greater cost of piling
and burning. The man-power machine removes less dirt
while the horse-power machine takes all the roots. If
the land is left in meadow or pasture for several j^ears
following clearing and before cropping, the roots left by
the small machine will cause little difficulty, as they are
close to or below the plow line. The man-power machine
represents a small investment and is used to advantage
on a small clearing. The horse- or steam-power machine
represents a greater investment and is suitable for larger
clearings. The limitation in either case is the amount
of dirt lifted and the difficulty of disposing of the un-
wieldly bulk of the stump without special contrivances,
a situation much modified by the use of dynamite in
connection with the machine.

TABLE XIV

Result of Foub Days' Woek with Man-Powek Stump-Puxlek

Men working 3

Cost of labor $6.75

140 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

Hours worked 9

Amount of dynamite used (pounds) 5.2

Cost of dynamite $0.67

Total stumps pulled 72

Green stumps 53

Dry stumps 19

Ground diameter of stumps, estimated (inches) .. 3-27

Total cost per day, labor and dynamite $7.42

Average time per stump (minutes) 7.75

Average man labor per stump (minutes) 23.25

Average labor cost per stump (cents) 7.75

Actual cost per stump (cents) * 10.3

* For purposes of comparison, these figures are on a basis of 20 cents
per hour, although at that time labor actually cost 22 H cents.

TABLE XV
Man-Power vs. Hokse-Power and Dynamite *

Man-power Horse-power
Machine Machine Dynamite

Time required to pull stump (min-
utes) 7.75 3.27

Time required to pull stump, man-
power (minutes) 23.25 9.81

Time required to blast (minutes) 5.23 5.23

Time required to remove stump,

horsepower ( minutes ) 6.04

Cost per stump, man labor (20

cents per hour) $0.0833 $0.0533 $0,029

Cost per stump, horse labor (7.5

cents per hour) $0.0081

Total labor cost per stump $0.0833 $0.06

Total cost per stump, labor and

dynamite $0.0926 $0.12 $0.141t

Number of stumps removed per

horse per day 91

Number of stumps removed per

man per day 24 61 70

* Table VI shows Masting cost only. Table XV includes blasting and
pulling.

tSee Table VI.

In spite of the cheapness and simplicity on the one
hand and the immense power developed on the other,
under the average farm conditions existing in the clay-
soil regions of the lake states, no better system has been
devised than that which is being followed successfully
by many, by which the land is cut over, seeded and
pastured for several years. The stumps are then blasted

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS

141

i\*. !b

142

CLEARING AND GRUBBING

and pulled and piled by horse-
power, one man and a team do-
ing the work.

Stump-pullers operated by
hand and horse power.
(From Engineering News,
Aug. 3, 1916.) The hand-
power stump-puller shown in
Fig. 27 is of the clutch type,
and is manufactured by the A.
J. Kirstin Co., of Escanaba,
Mich. The pulling cable passes
through a pair of clutch boxes
operated by the movement of a
long lever. As the lever is
swung to aad fro the clutches
are gripped, moved and re-
leased alternately, so that the
cable is held firmly by one
clutch while the other is re-
leased and moved back for an-
other grip and pull. The ope-
ration of the pulling set-up
shown is as follows:

The puller A has one end at-
tached to the cable B by means
of a trip hook C. The cable is
passed around an anchor
stump, then to the block D
and returns to pass through
the clutches on the puller. A
second cable E has a ring
socket at one end which is
hooked to the block D; it passes
through a second block F and
is then led to the anchor stump,
to which it is secured by loop-
ing under a hook G on the end
^^.,. of the cable. A third cable

H with a hook at one end and ring socket at the other is
looped around the stump which is to be removed and

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 143

Pulling Cables
Anchor Cables

^AnchorShjwps

K" Block, B" Take-up
C "= Cable Enft hooked

over Cable Shjmps
■h be pulled

3 Pulling Cables
HAND MACHlNCi CLUTCH TXP£

EKjr

Z Pulling Cables
HAND MACHINE; DRUhf TVPE

Drum

Z Pulling Cables
HORSB MACHINES^ DRUM TrPE

Fig. 28. Arrangements of Outfits and Rigging for Stump Pullers

secured by its hook, in the same way as at G. Its free
end is passed around a take-up or cable-shortening- device
J , which is hooked to the second block P, and provides
for taking up all slack between the block and the stump.

For heavier pulls, a third cable and block, similar to
EF, may be used, with the take-up hooked to this block,
as shown in the top diagram of Fig. 28. For compara-
tively light pulls, only the first block and the two cables
B and H are used, the latter being connected to the block
D either directly or through the take-up.

Other hand-operated stump-pullers are of the drum

144 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

type. One of these is the " K " device manufactured by
Walter J. Fitzpatrick, 182 Fifth St., San Francisco,
Calif. In this the cable is wound upon a small drum
mounted in a frame and driven by pawl and ratchet gear
by means of a long lever handle. From the drum the
cable is led through a block and then returns, passing
around the anchor stump and having its end attached
to the frame carrying the drum. This arrangement is
shown in the second diagram in Fig. 28.

Horse-operated stump-pullers are drum machines,

Fig. 29. Capstan Horse-Power Puller Made by Faultless Stump
Puller Co., Cresco, Iowa

having the drum mounted upon skids or' a truck and
driven by means of one or two sweeps to which horses
or teams are hitched. The frame carrying the drum may
be hitched to an anchor stump, or secured by embedding
its sills in the ground and driving heavy stakes at the
ends. Fig. 29 shows an outfit by the Fautless Stump
Puller Co., of Cresco, Iowa. Similar machines are made
by numerous makers, each having its own special
features.

The arrangement of the cable rigging is adapted to
the power required, and some typical arrangements are
shown in Fig. 28. Power is multiplied by attaching ad-
ditional lines and blocks as indicated. When not re-

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS U5

quired for this purpose, these extra parts may be used
as snatchblocks to guide the main cable clear of obstruc-
tions or to keep it down near the ground so that the
horses can step over it.

Various special devices are used in stump-pulling
work. When stumps are small or too short and rotten to
hold the cable loop or snare, a steel stump hook or root
plow is used. This is of V-shape, with one leg horizontal
and hitched to the cable; the other leg is inclined and
ends either in a heavy point or in a broad-forked end to
engage the stump or root. Handles on the back enable
a man to guide the plow into position as it engages the
stump. There are also root hooks (like ice tongs) for
pulling short and rotten stumps.

For clearing brush, there is a .device having three or
four short ropes or chains attached to an iron head which
is hooked to the pulling cable. These ropes are looped
around the stumps or trunks, and enable a large amount
of the brush to be removed at each pull. Where the
stumps are to be piled for burning, a ' ' skidder ' ' or light
portable derrick on skids is used.

Horse-power stump-pullers. The following is taken
from Engineering and Contracting, March 25, 1908 : A
horse-power stump-puller is usually a capstan, or whim-
gin, Pigs. 30 and 31. The machine is set up at a con-
venient level spot, and wire cables are fastened to the
stump to be pulled. The team is started and as they
circle around the puller, the cable is wound up on the
drum of the machine, causing such a gradual and
powerful strain on the stump that it is dislodged from
the ground.

There are a number of firms manufacturing stump-
pullers and each make varies but little from the others
in general design. Most manufacturers are now making
grooved drums on their machines, as this prevents the
steel rope from cutting against itself as it winds on the
drum, and from being pressed out of shape. Pullers
made of steel instead of iron are much stronger for the
same weight, which is an advantage when the machine
has to be moved frequently.

Some of the pullers are mounted on small bases, and

146 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

these generally have to be anchored by means of a cable
or chain to an adjoining stump or tree, (see Fig. 30).
Some of these machines have a large hook on the side
to be used in anchoring.

Pig. 31 shows a machine vi^ith a large base. This nia-
chine is not ordinarily anchored, but, if much work is to
be done at one place, and especially if the stumps are
large green ones, it is well to anchor both styles of bases,
by driving large forked stubs in the ground on all sides
of the puller, thus holding it to the aground and in place.

Fig. 30. Small Base Puller with Anchor Line, Also " Take-Up "
Being Used on Stump

The sweep or lever to which the horses are attached
can be extended beyond the axle, and this elongated end
can have a weight fastened to it, to serve as a counter
balance, and relieve the horses of the vertical load.

As the horses walk around the machine they have to
step over the cable that is pulling the stump, and at
times this interferes with the horses when there is a great
strain on the cable. To overcome this, some stump-
pullers have been made to be thrown out of gear and back
into gear while there is a strain on the cable. This
allows the horses to step over the cable without danger,
and also admits of a stump being pulled where the horses
cannot circle clear around the machine, but must stay
on one side only. The machine can be thrown out of
gear and the horses backed, to make a new pull.

Stumps are pulled either by a direct pull, (see Fig.
31 ), or by a double pull. Naturally the work is a little
slower with the double pull than with the direct pull,
yet it sometimes pays to use it in preference to moving
the machine so frequently, as would have to be done
with a short rope and a direct pull. It is seldom ad-

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STXJMP-PULLERS 147

visable to use a short cable on a machine. One from 150
to 200 ft. is much better. Much more work can be done
from one "set-up" of the machine with such a length
of rope. For instance, in clearing large areas of land,
a cable 50 ft. long will clear less than % acre, a 100-ft.
cable will clear nearly % acre, while a 200-ft cable will
clear nearly 3 acres, from one set-up.

There are several methods of taking up the extra
length of cable. One is shown in Fig. 30, where it is
made into a double pull. Some machines have a hand
winder on the drum to take in the slack before starting
the horses. This is a good attachment to any machine,
as there is always some slack to be taken up, and it is
done quicker by hand than by the team. Another
method is to hav« a ' ' take-up, ' ' shown in Fig. 32A. This
allows the pulling cable to be hooked around any stump
at any place on the cable.

The sizes of stump-pullers are governed by the pull
they exert, which in turn is controlled by the size of the
steel cable used on the machine. Cables from % in. to
1% ins. are used; the smaller ones for machines to be
operated by one horse, while on the larger ones four
horses are sometimes used. Each manufacturer varies
his machine as to sizes and numbers, and the weights
likewise vary considerably, as catalog weights include
equipment sent with puller, which alone, due to length
of rope included, can make a variation in weight of over
100 lbs. Generally there are about eight different sizes
and weights of machine made. The two smallest sizes
will weigh from 200 to 400 lbs. The two medium sizes
will weigh from 400 to 700 lbs. The light patterns of the
large sizes will weigh from 700 to 1,000 lbs., while the
heavy patterns of the large sizes weigh from 1,200 to
1,500 lbs., but some extra heavy machines weigh as much
as a ton.

Various uses of a stump-puller are illustrated in Fig.
31. "A" represent a tree being pulled by direct pull;
the chunk at the root of the tree forms a fulcrum over
which to lift the roots running toward the machine.
This is often a great help, as the hardest pull sometimes
comes when the tree is down. "B" and "C" represent

148

CLEARING AND GRUBBING

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 149

a tree standing so near the machine that, if pulled toward
the machine, it would fall upon the horses. The stump
at " B " stands beyond the tree, so that the tree is thrown
away from the puller. In this manner a tree may be
thrown in any direction. Likewise stumps standing in-
side the circle in which the horse travels may be pulled
in this manner. " D " and " E " represent a large stump
being pulled by a double pull, "E" being the anchor
stump.

" F " and " G " represent a large tree being pulled by
single power by hitching high, tbe rope going through a
pulley or snatch block attached to the stump " G, " thus
allowing the horses to step over the rope. At "H" is
shown a stump hook pulling out a low small stump, and
" J " shows a coupler with four small chains attached for
rapid work, pulling four small stumps or roots at a single
pull.

There are numerous devices meant to be used with
stump-pullers. The one shown at "J" in Pig. 31 is
manufactured by the Milne Manufacturing Co., of Mon-
mouth, 111., to which we are indebted for the illustration.

The tool shown in Pig. 32B is a grub plow made by
the Hercules Manufacturing Co., of Centerville, la.,
which firm makes the puller illustrated in Pig. 31. This
grub plow is not only useful in pulling small stumps,
but it can be used for grubbing up large and small roots,
being propelled by the puller. This plow will save much
money in grubbing for elevating grader work. There
are other styles and makes of root hooks, mostly meant
for roots that grow above the ground, as the palmetto
does.

In operating a puller, the cable should not be wrapped
on the drum more than once, as it cuts itself if several
thickness of cable are coiled on the drum. "Take-ups"
(Pig. 32A) should be used to prevent this.

Care must be exercised in placing the rope and hook
around the stump. The rope should be fastened near
the top of the stump, so as to get the greatest leverage,
and the hook must be set as shown in Pig. 32. If the
hook is placed so it kinks the rope, the hook will be easily
broken, or else it will cut strands in the cable.

150

CLEARING AND GRUBBING

Fig. 32. Devices for Attaching Cables to Stumps. A, "Take-Up" ;
B, Grub-Plow; C, Stump Rope with Hook

When stumps are pulled, they should ordinarily be
cut up for easy handling, as with long roots they are
expensive to move. Many stumps can be handled if the
roots are cut off with axes, while the largest stump can
be broken up by dynamite by the method explained above.
In cutting and breaking up stumps of hardwood trees,
good "knees" that can be saved should usually be set
aside to be sold, as they always bring a good price for
ship building, and if convenient to ship them to market
will help to pay for the grubbing. Contractors can often
use them in building pile drivers and other machines.

In cutting timber where stumps are to be pulled, the
stumps should be left high, as they are pulled much
easier than when cut low. If the timber is valuable, a
cord wood length (4 ft.) can be left above the roots and
after the stump is pulled this can be sawed off.

Although the stump puller can pull trees, yet in most
cases it is more economical to cut the trees and after-

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 151

wards pull the stumps, especially if the trees are very
large. Very small trees will bend and break if an at-
tempt is made to pull them up. Trees up to 16 ins. in
diameter may be pulled.

A stump puller is likewise a useful machine in moving
houses, especially if it can be thrown out of gear quickly.
Contractors in clearing land for excavation frequently
have frame buildings to move, and with a stump puller
this work can be done cheaper than by almost any other
method.

Methods for hitching to stumps. Several ingenious
methods for hitching pulling lines to stumps and clusters
of young trees have been devised by the W. Smith Grub-
ber Co. of La Crescent, Minn., with whose permission we
are using the accompanying cuts.

JilSB^flllfiflBfiflnn

mmmmmammt

Fig. 33.

Pig. 33, 1 and 2, show the Eope Clutch used with the
regular Pull Eope to make hitches to a half dozen or
more small trees or stumps at once. The saving in time
effected by this method of hitching can be seen at a
glance.

Fig. 34 shows a method of hitching that is very popular
in small second growth timber where the growth is close.
These Cluster Ropes are 100% stronger than chains of
the same diameter, and weigh only one-fourth as much.

152

CLEARING AND GRUBBING

Fig. 34.

This method of hitching will give best results in clus-
ters of small trees. No extras are required. The Pull

Fig. 35.

Rope is wrapped around a dozen or more, and a couple
of poles placed in position as shown in the illustration

Fig. 36.

HAND, HOKSB, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 153

(Fig. 35). Instead of taking out one tree at once you
take out a dozen.

Using an upright pole for greater purchase in pulling
large stumps is one of the cheapest, one of the most con-
venient, and one of the most essential helps ever devised
for clearing land, and probably one of the most neg-
lected. It costs practically nothing to make and the time
required for its use will be saved five times and over on
each stump pulled. (See Fig. 36.)

Fig. 37.

This illustration, Fig. 37, shows another convenient
method of hitching to large stumps. You will note in
both Figs. 36 and 37 the hitch is made to the opposite
side of the stump from the machine, the back of the
stump, the rope pulling over the stump. In Fig. 37 the
block in front of the stump will be found a great aid in
heavy work.

Fig. 38.

Fig. 38 indicates a proper axid positive method of
bracing the anchor stump. Instances have been met in
this country where the soil is so loose that it is hard to
find a suitable anchorage. This method is suggested as
a remedy.

Fig. 39 shows the rope clutch employed in taking up
the slack rope. It is one of the various uses to which this
clutch may be put.

154 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

For a means of removing rock or boulders from the
field with the use of a stump pulling machine, the hitch
shown in the illustration, Fig. 40, is recommended.

w s sv i WviivKwm-iS i

Fig. 40.

Pulling small trees. Using a capstan or winch type
of stump-puller, small trees of about 6 ins. diameter can
be pulled quickly. With a crew of two men, a team of
horses and a driver, 15 small trees were pulled in an
hour. About one-third the time was spent hooking on
to trees, one-third in pulling, and one-third in unhooking.

Boyle's stump extractor. A novel type of stump
puller is made by Butterworth and Lowe, Grand Rapids,
Mich. As will be seen in Fig. 41, there are three posts,
set in a cap at the top in such a way as to rest securely
against a shoulder in any angle. The feet of two of these
posts are set in a strong iron stirrup, which has a broad
rimmed castor wheel attached. The other post rests on
a strong wooden shoe, to which the whiffletrees are at-
tached in moving it from one stump to another.

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 155

The unique feature of this machine is the machinery
at the top, for the lifting power. A large steel screw
runs up through the massive nut; this nut rests on a
bearing which is a half sphere ; between the two are anti-
friction rollers which reduce the friction of the nut to

Boyle's Stump Extractor

almost nothing. Attached to the nut are three pulleys,
one much larger than the others. Around either of these
pulleys a wire rope 280 ft. long is passed. To this the
team is attached to operate it. The small pulley is used
in lifting medium and small stumps; the larger is for
large ones.

A sweep stump puller. In Engineering and Contract-
ing, Apr. 8, 1908, I first published the following :

The sweep stump puller, Fig. 42, is one that I have

156

CLEARING AND GRUBBING

used for pulling piles and stumps. Its operation is
simple yet very effective. One end of the sweep S rests
on the ground, and the other end is mounted on a wagon
wheel. The sweep is an 8 x 10 in. timber 24 ft. long,
and at the free end, B, there is attached a single or double
whiffletree. The arrangement at the fixed end. A, is
somewhat more complex and may well be described in
detail. About 3 ft. from the end is an ej-ebolt, I, to
which is fastened an anchoring chain attached to a con-

Fig. 42. Sweep Stump Puller

venient stump or "dead man," P. On each side of the
eyebolt, and almost 4 in. from it are attached hookbolts,
h^ and h^, and still further away two similar bolts, hj
and h^. The stump pulling wire cable is fastened to a
short chain, K, and then carried over an A-frame F and
attached to a stump as shown. The chain K is hooked
to the bolt hj.

In operating it the lever, S, is drawn in the direction
of the arrow, causing a strain on the pulling cable. The
horse is driven ahead until the sweep has the position
shown by the dotted lines, and when this position has
been reached a short length of chain indicated by the
dotted line K is hooked at one end to the pulling chain

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 157

and at the other end to the hook bolt hj. The horse is
then turned and driven in the opposite direction, putting
a further strain on the pulling chain and slacking the
chain K so that it can be shortened and hooked up again
when the horse has moved the sweep to the position
shown by the left hand set of dotted lines. The horse
is then started on its forward trip, then back again, and
so on, pulling alternately on chains K and K^ and put-
ting, ultimately, an enormous strain on the stump.

An idea of the power exerted is gained from the fol-
lowing brief . calculation. If the distance between the
king bolt of the whiffletree and the bolt I is 20 ft., and if
hi and h^ are 4 in. (1-3 ft.) from I, the pull of the horse
is multiplied 3 X 20 = 60 times. A horse capable of
pulling 500 lb. would then put a strain of 500 X 60 =
30,000 lb. on the chain K and Kj. Then in the triangle
a b c, a b represents 30,000 lb. and a c represents the
pull on the stump, which must always be greater than
30,000 lb. to an amount depending upon the inclination
of the A frame; if the batter of the A frame is 1 in 3
the pull on the stump will be 40,000 lb. As a matter
of fact, one horse cannot long maintain a 500 lb. pull,
and a team must be used where such a pull is necessary.

Very large stumps can be pulled with this simple de-
vice and a team of horses.

From the figures given it is evident that heavy chains
and cables must be used or else there will be frequent
breaks.

One set-up of the machine can be used to pull a large
number of stumps, since it is necessary to move only the
comparatively light A frame. With a long cable, to give
a good reach to the machine, there should be used take-
ups like those shown with the style of stump puller shown
in Fig. 30, else considerable time is consumed in taking
up the slack of the cable. The crew to operate this style
of machine consists of a foreman, three laborers and one
span of horses, the daily cost being about $16. This
machine and the one shown in Fig. 43 were both used
for pulling piles, the machines being adapted for either
pile or stump pulling. Figs. 43 and 44 illustrate another
sweep puller.

158 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

Methods and cost of removing stumps from a re-
servoir site in West Virginia. The following is by
Victor P. Hammel in Engineering and Contracting, Oct.
25, 1911 : The mountain reservoir of the Union Utilities
Co., designed to supply Morgantown, W. Va., with an
auxiliary gravity water supply system, is located in the
foothills of the Allegheny Mountains, about 6 miles from
that city. The site of the reservoir was heavily wooded
and required some very difficult work of stump grub-
bing. It is on the method of removal of these stumps
that this description is written.

The trees covering the reservoir site were principally
oak, some pine and chestnut, with considerable under-
growth and saplings. The stumps were not exception-
ally large, very few being more than 20 ins. in diameter,
the run being between 6 and 20 ins., with an average of
14 ins. The marketable timber on the site had all been
cut by a lumber mill previously, and the timber re-
moved. As usual on such operations the height of the
stump left standing averaged 2 ft., which was an ad-
vantage for working with a stump-puller.

The soil was loamy sand, clay and gravel with the
sand predominating, being a sedimentary deposit washed
into the valley. The clearing covered an area of 28.1
acres.

As it was the original idea to excavate the sub-soil
(which had to be removed) with scrapers, the removal
of the roots was an important matter as the progress of
excavation is greatly retarded by the presence of roots
in the ground even though these be small. A saving
could have been accomplished had the grubbing been
left to be done by the steam shovel which was later pur-
chased and put in operation for the construction of the
impounding dam and sub-soil excavation.

The grubbing was done by means of a stump-puller
and a two-horse team, excepting in very difficult places,
where it was done with hand labor, using mattocks and
shovels, aided by blasting.

Blasting the stumps to loosen the soil around the roots
and stringers was found a great aid, and dynamite was
used whenever the stump was large and firmly rooted.

HAND, HORSE, AND PO\A'ER STUMP-PULLERS 159

For placing the charge a small hole was dug in the
ground under the base of the stump with a shovel, or a
hole was made with a round stick or bar. An average
of V2 lb. of dynamite was used for each stump, and this
amount was found sufficient in obtaining effective loosen-
ing for the subsequent removal with the puller. Fuse
and caps were used in discharging the dynamite. The
blasting usually preceded the puller a sufficient time
and far enough in advance not to delay the work. Much
of the shooting was also done at noon hour and after
quitting time.

The style of stump-puller used on this work is shown
by Figs. 43 and 44. Such a device can be built on the
job by a contractor's force, a blacksmith being able to
shape the metal parts and the whole put together by
an ordinary carpenter. The chains and bolts should, of
course, be purchased from a supply house as the cost of
making them amounts to a great deal more than they
could be bought for. The principle of this puller is
very simple, being merely au adaptation of the principle
of the lever. On account of the character of the soil and
the root growth, the stumps could be drawn out of the
ground by a direct hitch without an extra device for
vertical pull, as required when the stumps have long
tap roots.

The stump-puller consists of a long beam, at one end
of which are fastened chains for attaching to the stumps
to be removed, and to the stump which acts as the
anchor, while the opposite end is mounted on an old
wagon wheel with a king bolt for attaching a whiffle-
tree. For the anchor stump a very large and firm one
was selected and used to pull all the surrounding stumps
without moving, this being accomplished' with extra
length of chain and extension rods. The anchor stump
was later grubbed by hand. A team of horses was
hitched to the boom and pulled by traversing in the path
of an arc of a circle backwaM and forward, a distance
of about 60 degrees or one-sixth of a circle. While the
horses are tiirniiig at the end of a sweep the short chain
on the opposite side of the bolt attaching the anchor line
is hooked to the pulling chain and the horses pull in the

160

CLEARING AND GRUBBING

opposite direetion, I'esulting in the continued forward
pulling of the stump. There is no time lost in making
this change, it 'being accomplished quickly, while the
horses are turning. Occasionally when the stump was
very firmly rooted some of the heavier roots were
chopped loose with an ax and later dug out by hand.
Fig. 43 shows method of operating stump-puller.
With the beam in the position ES, the pulling line con-
sisting of rods and chain, is hooked to the hitching chain
B, and the team of horses at C pull in the direction of

Fis. iR

the arrow. When at a point P in the position of OP,
the chain B^ is hooked to the pulling line AD, and the
horses turned for a pull in the opposite direction. The
process is continued until the stump pulls free of the
ground. As can be seen there are two sets of hitching
chains, A^, Aj, Bj, and B^, by the proper use of which
the lever arm can be increased or decreased, resulting in
a greater or less force being applied to the pulling of the
stump. The method described was used effectively by
the writer.

The force required to do this work consisted of one
team and driver, two men for carrying the chain and
grubbing, and one hitch man. The blasting was done
at odd times and with different men. No special fore-
man was over the grubbing gang, the supervision of the

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 161

work being in charge of the general foreman, who also
attended to the other work going on at the same time on
the job. The hitching man spent all liis time making
the change of hitch when the team turned at the end
of a sweep. The long and heavy chain required two
men for handling and while they were unoccupied with
this work they were kept busy hand grubbing, there be-
ing sufficient work of this nature to keep them constantly
at work.

Extension Rod I'Diameter ^

All Bolts I Diameter

-—20-

I '•Plate II 'SS'i

AnchorLine attached here

-lo's To Kingbolt of Whiffletree

Hitching Chains'
Fig. 44. Details of a. Stump Puller

The chains used on this puller had seen considerable
use on a steam shovel and needed constant repair. This
item increased the unit cost of the work quite consider-
able as noted below.

The wages paid for team and driver were $5, and for
labor $1.50 per day of 9 hours. The following is the
average cost of pulling the stumps. The cost of the
puller and the depreciation thereon are not included in
the data.

162 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

Cents

Labor 14.0

Repairs 02.0

Dynamite and blasting 09.5

Superrision 02.0

Total per stump 27.3

The stumps were dragged away to a storage pile to
dry for subsequent burning. The cost thereof is not
included in the above item. Some of the stumps were
so large and heavy with the attached roots and soil that
it required four horses to pull them.

The major portion of the work was done during the
spring and early summer. Although the mud made
work disagreeable at times, it was found easier for ef-
fective grubbing that the condition of the ground be
moist and loose, so long as the mud was not so bad that
the horses could travel the ground without becoming
mired.

The grubbing was done by the company's own organ-
ization.

A tripod stump puller. The stump puller shown in
Fig. 45 is of a type designed and built by the author for
pulling piles and large stumps. With a 4-horsepower
engine it exerted a pull of 50 tons.

Pig. 45. Tripod Stump Puller

The legs of the tripod shown in Fig. 45 were 8 x 8 in.
timbers, 10 ft. long. The rope is reeved through a set

HAND, HOESE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 103

164 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

of triple blocks and carried to the 4 in. drum. The gear
wheel and pinion are respectively 20 in. and 4 in. in
diameter. This arrangement gives a powerful strain on
the chain or cable fastened to the stump. The stumps
can be pulled by hand power or horses, or a line can be
run from the 12 in. drum to a small (4 h.p. or larger)
hoisting engine and the machine operated by it. This
tripod outfit must be moved for each stump that is to be
pulled.

With the gear wheels and tackle shown in Fig. 45 the
power is multiplied 270 times. So powerful is one of
these pullers that chains made of li/4-in. iron were
broken, indicating a stress of about 100,000 lbs. developed
with a 4-horse-power hoisting engine. Of course horses
can be used instead of an engine, but if there is much
pulling to be done an engine will prove cheaper. Large
oak piles driven 27 ft. deep in hard gravel were pulled
with this machine. "With a crew of 15 men, consisting of
3 laborers, 1 foreman and 1 engineman, 15 piles averag-
ing 12 ft. deep in the ground, were pulled per 10-hour
day. With daily wages of the crew amounting to $12,
and Yi ton of coal amounting to $1, the entire cost was
about $1 per pile.

A tripod machine can be made for about $100 and the
pulley blocks and tackle will cost about $100 more.
Only very large and heavy pulley blocks should be used,
for the strain is terrific. A 2V2-in. manila rope is reeved
through the triple-blocks and around the 4-in. drum.
A li/4-in. rope is wound around the 12-in. drum and the
leads to the engine or to the horses.

Eig for log skidding. A hoisting engine can always
be used to good advantage in pulling stumps where there
are many to pull. By means of a gear block and hooks
it is easily rigged for the work. For this purpose the
engine can be mounted on either a sled or on wheels and
easily moved from place to place. These machines come
mounted in this manner for logging purposes and are
also mounted on railroad tracks and made self-propelling.

With such an outfit stumps can not only be pulled, but,
with a small log skidding plant, both stumps and logs
can be pulled up either to be burned or to be hauled

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 165

away later on. A log skidder consists, besides the hoist-
ing engine, of a gin pole or main spar, erected and prop-
erly giiyed, with several cables carried to smaller poles,
upon which a small carriage travels. The logs and
stumps are picked up and dragged or lifted onto a pile
around the gin pole.

Fig. 47. McEwen Patented Cone

Fig. 47, showing a McEwen patented cone, manufac-
tured by the Flory Mfg. Co. This cone is slipped over
the chain or cable used in pulling the log and prevents
the log from plowing into the ground or lodging against
obstructions. It is a useful device. When the pile of
stumps and logs is completed the blocks and cables are
removed and the poles are burnt up with the pile of
debris. The Lidgerwood Mfg. Co., of New York City,
and the S. Flory Mfg. Co., of Bangor, Pa., make "log
skidding systems" which are especially suited for clear-
ing and grubbing by means of hoisting engines and cable-
way. See Fig. 46.

Use of a locomotive crane. A locomotive crane manu-
factured by the Browning Engineering Co., of Cleveland,
has been used to assist in grubbing and clearing up the
right of way of a railroad. After the track was laid the
crane was used to pull up small stumps outside the road-
bed but on the right of way, and all the logs, stumps and
brush were loaded on flat cars and carried to a marsh

166 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

that was being filled in with earth and other materials.

No attempt was made to pull up a stump more than
10 to 12 ins. in diameter, as all the large ones had already
been blasted, but the machine, rigged properly, could no
doubt have pulled the largest stumps. The locomotive
crane moved the car along as it was being loaded, and the
crane was also used to help unload the cars. This was
done by attaching a chain to one of the bottom logs or
stumps on the side of the car farthest from dump and
pulling this log or stump up and over, throwing off a
great mass of the load at one lift.

The Clyde Iron Works, of Duluth, Minn., make the
McGiffert log loader, which could be used for the same
purpose. It has a long stationary boom. When loading
the machine is elevated and stands on four steel beams,
which allows empty cars to pass under it to take the place
of the loaded ones. When not loading logs it is let down
on its own trucks and is moved like a locomotive crane.

Use of a pile driver. Upon one occasion a pile driv-
ing machine was used to clean up the right of way of a
railroad. A pile bridge half a mile long was being built
through a river bottom, and nearly the whole area was
heavily wooded. The trees were cut down and sawed
into logs, but the stumps were not grubbed. As the pile
driver moved along driving the piles, by the use of two
snatch blocks and some lines, all the logs and brush were
moved off the right of way and piled on the adjoining
land. This work hardly retarded the pile driving, as
the men needed to trim and mark the poles did the work
while the crew on the machine was preparing to drive
the new bent of piles. From 10 to 20 ft. of right of way
was cleared at each move of the machine.

Clearing and grubbing methods. The land clearing
demonstration trains operated during 1916 by the Agri-
cultural Engineering Department of the Wisconsin
College of Agriculture developed certain methods of
clearing and grubbing. A description of these methods
was given by Prof. C. D. Livingston in a paper presented
at the recent road school of the University of Wisconsin.
Extracts from this paper by Engineering and Contract-
ing, Feb. 21, 1917, follow:

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 167

bo

o

bo

16S CLEARING AND GRUBBING

Burning is the usual method of disposing of the
stumps. The pieces, therefore, should not be too large,
they must be free from dirt, reasonably dry, and the piles
should be high, narrow and compact. In order to bring
this condition about, ■ a combination method of using
horse pullers, low grade dynamite, and horse pilers will
probably serve the purpose better, in a majority of eases,
than the method now in general use.

Pulling shi^mps. Horse power pullers are at present
being looked upon with favor because the manufacturer
has developed accessories which greatly add to the effi-
ciency of their product. Dynamite is used to break up
the big stumps, and serviceable pilers have been de-
veloped for use in connection with them.

Stump pullers are now made of cast steel instead of
iron. This construction gives greater strength with less
weight. It is very easy to haul the entire equipment
from one place to another as the pullers may be equipped
with demountable wheels. They are manufactured in
different sizes to meet the requirements of various con-
ditions of stumps, soil and finance.

More development has been made along the invention
of accessories. The introduction of such new devices as
"take-ups" and "power pulleys" has done much to in-
crease the popularity of the puller. A "take-up" is an
ingenious contrivance which enables the operator to con-
nect a stump to any point on the main line. It is not
heavy, is serviceable, and doubles the speed of clearing.
While the first stump is being pulled, a second "take-
up" is being fastened to a second stump. As soon as the
first stump is out the first "take-up" is snapped from
the main line and connected to the second. Little time
is lost, for, as the second stump comes out, the operator
unhooks the first ' ' take-up ' ' and places it about the third
stump in readiness to be fastened to the main line as soon
as it is free of its last hold.

' ' Power pulleys ' ' allow the power at the machine to be
multiplied and this enables the outfit to be constructed
of lighter materials. By using these pulleys, a powerful
force can be exerted at the stump to be pulled, and it has
been found that multiplying the power four times in a

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 169

quadruple pull, will tip out all but the very largest
stumps.

Fig. 49. Power Pulley Made by Zimmerman Steel Co., Bretten-
dorf, Iowa, and Snatch Block for Same Purpose Made by W.
Smith Grubber Co., La Crescent, Minn.

Cracking stumps by blasting. When the stump is out,
split it up with low grade dynamite. The reasons for
adopting this method are : It takes no longer to pull a
whole stump at once by a power pull than to crack it
first and make several straight pulls. All the roots are
out and after dynamite has been used they are much
more free from dirt than if the stump had been shot
before pulling. The same amount of dynamite will leave
the pieces more free from dirt and in better condition for
burning when the stump is cracked afterwards.

The proper place to get the charge is right against the
crown of the stump on the root side, just at the point
where all the roots join. It is not necessary to bore into
the stump but merely to get the charge at the proper

170 CLEAEING AND GRUBBING

place and then tamp it well with a stiff mud. Twenty
per cent, low freezing ammonia dynamite, sometimes
known as farm powder, is even better adapted for crack-
ing than the higher grades. The action of the low grade
dynamite is a shaking one, rather than the cutting action
of the high explosives. It is also much cheaper.

Dynamite, of course, plays a very important part in all
land clearing operations and there is manufactured a
kind of dynamite for every use. Very often a lower
grade dynamite which is cheaper would do the work even
better than a higher priced article. The proper grade
can be determined by trial or experience.

Generally speaking, the cheaper, low grade dynamite
can be used on the heavier soils like the clays, silts and
loams. This is especially true if the ground is wet or
damp. As the soil becomes lighter or drier the percent-
age used must be increased until on the lightest and
driest of sands 60 per cent straight nitroglycerine dyna-
mite is needed. For general use in land clearing, 20 per
cent, 30 per cent, and 40 per cent are best adapted.

Getting the charges of dynamite where they will do the
best work is a very important part of stump blasting.
If the load is placed too high, the dirt may be blown from
between the roots or the stump only cracked. If the load
was large enough to take the stump out, many of the roots
surely must be cut off and left to interfere with the work
of the grading gang. It is far better practice to use a
slow dynamite and load deeper. Such a method will
bring out all the roots and still break up the stump.

In blasting any stump the charge or charges must be
placed where the roots are holding the tightest. With
the cap and fuse method of firing, only one charge can
be placed and that, under the center of resistance. But
if electrical blasting is used a charge can be spread under
a number of the larger roots and all loads exploded at the
same time. This method of firing makes it possible to
get the dynamite where it is most needed. .

Some operators remove the wrappers from the car-
tridge so the dynamite can be packed in order to com-
pletely fill the hole. This is poor practice as the dyna-
mite may become moist and therefore wasted. Dirt will

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 171

also mix with the free dyBamite, which decreases its
effieiency. A good way is to slit the wrapper three or
four times the long way. When tamped the cartridge
spreads to fill the bore hole. No dirt is mixed with it.

Piling and hurniiig stumps. Getting the stumps on
top of the ground is only half the story. They must be
burned and that means getting them into a pile. ]\le-
chanical pilers of the boom type, however, accomplish
this work about as satisfactorily • as any method. A
home-made one will do the work nearly as cheaply as will
the higher priced ones. An automatic trip at the other
end of the boom is a valuable asset as it allows piling and
burning to be carried on at the same time. This means
that stumps can be burned when more dirt is on the roots
and when more water is in them than by piling first and
burning afterwards. Green stumps, or those with dirt
on the roots need to be continually jarred or they will
not burn completely. Fresh stumps added to the pile at
regular intervals serve this purpose. A piler makes a
stump puller more efficient and larger pieces can be
handled, which means a saving in dynamite.

Arrangement of multiple power hitches. The follow- '
ing Fig. 50 illustrates the use of single, double, triple and
quadruple power hitches together with a "take-up" de-
vice manufactured by the Zimmerman Steel Co., of Bret-
tendorf, Iowa, with whose permission the cuts are used.

Methods and costs of clearing logged-off land in the
Pacific Northwest. The following is an abstract of cir-
cular No. 25, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of
Agriculture, by IIa,rry Thompson, printed in Engineer-
ing and Contracting, Sept. 6, 1911 :

The rapid decrease of merchantable timber and the
consequent increasing acreage of logged-off land have
brought to the attention of the people of the Pacific
Northwest the importance of the agricultural develop-
ment of this section of the United States. In order to
make this land suitable for agricultural purposes it must
be cleared for the plow. To do this the standing timber,
the logs, the underbrush, and the stumps must be re-
moved.

A preliminary investigation of the situation was made-

172

CLEARING AND GRUBBING

n^p.55

i.sil"

O a; O) F*

ra 3 o

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 173

during the summer of 1908 to determine the extent of
the logged-off land, the methods in use at the present
time, and as nearly as possible the cost of clearing by the
different methods used. No experiments were under-
taken, and consequently no definite figures can be given
in regard to the cost of clearing by the different methods
in use except as given by contractors and owners who
had kept the cost of clearing separate from othqr ex-
penses. The territory covered in this investigation
embraces western Washington, western Oregon, and
northern California.

The extent of logged-off land. In the State of Wash-
ington the 18 counties west of the Cascade Mountains
have a total area of 8,700,000 acres of assessed land, as
given by the various assessors of the respective counties.
Of this, 429,000 acres are in cultivation or improved
pasture, 5,034,000 acres in standing merchantable tim-
ber, and 2,352,000 in logged-off land. From this it will
be seen that 27 per cent of the total acreage is logged-
off land and that the acreage in cultivation, much of
which is pasture land from which the large stumps have
not been removed, is only 5 per cent of the whole area.

The timber lands in western Oregon and northern
California are not nearly so accessible as those of western
Washington. Neither is there nearly so much logged-
off land, nor is this land so well adapted for agricultural
purposes as that in Washington. • While the demand for
farm land in Oregon and California is well supplied by
prairie and easily cleared brush land, the necessity for
reclaiming the logged-off land in these states is not press-
ing. On the other hand, western Washington has but
few valleys that were not heavily timbered at one time,
and the demand for agricultural products far exceeds
the local supply. Consequently, the demand for farm
land and the idle wastes of cut-over land has brought the
question of clearing this land squarely before the people.
The character of the clearing ranges from the heavily
timbered spruce and cedar lowlands through the benches
and side hills covered with fir stumps and a dense growth
of underbrush to the more sparsely covered hemlock
ridges.

174 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

Character of the trees. The spruce stump is thought
to be the most expensive to remove, owing to the fact
that it is found only on the deepest soil, where it roots
deeply, it often requiring a box (50 lbs.) of stumping
powder to loosen a single stump 5 ft. in diameter.

The fir stump is the predominating stump of all
logged-off lands in Washington and Oregon, and is re-
moved by various methods described below.

The cedar grows to some extent wherever the fir is
found and predominates on low ground.

All of the above trees have lateral root systems and
do not root deeply except in loose or sandy soil, where
the roots penetrate to a depth' of several feet. On
flooded or swampy land the roots are often partly above
the surface.

In the logged-off lands of the redwood district of
northern California there has been little effort made to
clear the land for agricultural purposes, since prairie
land is plentiful and the logged-off land is rough and
hilly.

Some attempts have been made to clear the land of
everything but the stumps and then to seed to orchard
grass for cattle range. This work of clearing has been
done for $10 per acre. This method of making range
has proved a failure in most eases, as the great quantity
of brush and the sucker growth of the redwood stumps
have almost entirely covered the ground in two or three
years.

It is estimated that the logged-off land of California
can be reclaimed at about the same expense as the fir-
stump land of Oregon and Washington.

Most of the clearing that has been done in Oregon was
done by cheap labor until recent years. The donkey-
engine method has been used in some sections of the state
recently.

Hand method of clearing logged-off land. Until re-
cent years clearing was almost wholly done by what is
now known as the "by-hand" method, where the far-
mer, equipped with peavey, mattock, shovel, and ax,
undertook to put under cultivation the logger's stubble
field. By this method the standing trees and brush

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 175

were slashed, generally during the summer months.
Then, in September or October, after the first rainfall or
when there was no danger to neighboring improvements
or timber, a fire was started and allowed to burn over
the entire slashing, when most of the brush and small
logs were burned completely. The remaining logs were
sawed into convenient lengths, piled, and burned. After
the rains had softened the ground sufficiently the
smaller stumps and roots were grubbed and pullpd out.
Often a stump puller of the capstan type was used in
pulling the smaller stumps after they had been loosened
by digging around them.

This type of stump puller is often used in clearing
small tracts after the stumps have been broken into
several pieces and loosened by the use of stumping
powder, without which no clearing is undertaken in the
present day. The stump puller should be of simple con-
struction, strongly built. It generally consists of a
capstan drum, a wire cable, and a sweep to which a
team is hitched. Powder has been used in all clearing
operations for several years, and all methods, except
that of burning the stumps below the plow, are de-
pendent upon it to loosen the stumps so that they may
be taken out.

Donkey-engine method of clearing logged-off land.
Some six or seven years ago when logs were down in the
market and many logging outfits were idle, an enter-
prising logger took a contract for pulling the stumps
from a meadow. He conceived the idea of using his
donkey engine with its outfit of blocks and cables to
pull and pile the stumps for burning. Since that time
many such outfits have been engaged with varying suc-
cess in clearing land. The usual method is to slash and
burn over the tract to be cleared, in order to burn all the
underbrush and as many small logs as possible.

Then all the stumps more than 1 ft. in diameter are
split and loosened by a charge of stumping powder of
from 5 to 20 sticks, according to size. A charge of
twenty 1% x 8-in. sticks will generally split a 5-ft.
stump into five pieces and loosen it so that an engine
can pull the pieces from the ground.

176

CLEARING AND GRUBBING

A gin pole is then set in
the center of a tract of 8
or 10 acres and held in
place by four guy lines
from the top. (See Fig.
51.) This pole should be
60 ft. or more above the
ground. A block is fixed
securely near the top of
the gin pole, through
which is passed the main
cable from the engine.
This cable has the usual
hook, ring, and swivels at
the end, and is usually 1
in. or 1% ins. in diameter.
The haul-back cable,
which is usually % in. in
diameter, is taken to a
"lead block" and passed
around three sides of one-
fourth of the tract to be
cleared at this setting of
the gin pole (see Fig. 52),
and the end hooked into
the ring of the main cable,
thus forming an endless
cable with the engine —
one that will run in either
direction to or from the
gin pole.

In some cases, where the
engine is built with the
haul-back-cable drum above
the main-cable drum, it is
better to fasten the block for the main cable about 5 ft.
from the top of the pole and run the haul-back cable
through a block on top of the pole. The haul-back drum
is usually geared to run much faster than the main-
cable drum.

Each outfit should have on hand at least four

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 177

"chokers" and a supply of lead lines and extra Ijlocks.
A "choker" is a section of cable from 20 to 30 ft. in
length, with a loop in one end and a "choker hook" on
the other.

The ' ' choker ' ' is passed around the stump and hooked
upon itself. The loop is then caught in the hook of the
main cable, and the load is ready to go to the pile.

While this load is going to the pile another is made
ready, so that there is no time lost. When the cable
returns with the empty "choker" it is loosened and an-
other hooked into its place. As the loads come to the
gin pole they are piled around it as closely as possible
(Fig. 53) by a man on the pile.

This method, while an economic success in the hands

660' P of

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'lojiQat'

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■esi£Z'—.,

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TO opipas/T£- s/o£ CF ew fVl£ ' ■'■

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Fig. 52. Plan Showing Donkey Engine Rigged for Clearing Land

178

CLEARING AND GRUBBING

of a few, has proved a costly method of clearing as
handled by many others. If everything is handled to
advantage by capable, experienced men this method has
many points to its credit over any other method of
clearing now in use, the greatest of which is the saving
of time. It is also cheaper than the "by-hand" methods
on large tracts of heavy clearing.

The question of using a large or small donkey engine
has been discussed, but those who have been most suc-
cessful in clearing are generally in favor of an engine
with sufficient power to take all roots out with a straight
pull, avoiding the use of blocks. A 9 x 10-in. compound
gear, or 10 x 12-in. single gear, is said to be the best size
for this work.

Fig. 53. Stumps Piled Around Gin Pole in Clearing with a Don-
key Engine

Spar tree for logging topped with dynamite. The

following extract from Engineering Record applies as
well to clearing by donkey engine and gin pole as it
does to logging:

In logging by the high-lead system,, masts 150 to 200

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 179

ft. high are made by using a growing tree from which
the small part of the top and the necessary branches
are removed. Removing these tops with an ax and saw
is likely to prove dangerous, and the Manley-Moore
Lumber Company of British Columbia has devised a
method of shooting the tops out with dynamite.

After the branches have been removed, a rigger climbs
the tree, with a set of irons, to the point where it is
necessary to cut off the top. Here the trunk is usually
about 12 in. in diameter. The rigger ties a string of
dynamite cartridges, fastened end to end like sausages,
around the trunk at this point, inserts a blasting cap
with about 20 ft. of fuse in one of these sticks, lights the
end of the fuse, and is then able to descend to the ground
and reach a place of safety before the explosion takes
place. The tree top jumps into the air with the ex-
plosion, and the trunk is left ready for attaching the
rigging for dragging in and loading the logs.

Suggested improvements in the donkey engine out-
fit. Further suggestions on the use of donkey engine
outfits are made by Mr. Thompson in Bulletin No. 8 of
the State College of Washington Experiment Station, as
follows : The engine is the most important as well as
the most expensive part of the outfit and most of the
engines in use should be improved or replaced by a
better one. An engine embodying the ideas of an ex-
perienced operator is outlined below. There has re-
cently been put upon the market an engine designed
especially for stump pulling. It is stronger in breaking
out stumps at slow speed, but the speed for hauling to
the pile is very little faster than that of the ordinary
logging donkey. An engine for clearing purposes should
have a larger boiler and be designed to run at a greater
speed in hauling to the pile.

The greatest saving of time, after all losses on account
of defective engines have been eliminated, can be effected
by the use of the self -releasing "choker" (see Fig. 54).
This "choker" releases the load upon the pile when the
engine is reversed, in this manner : The large hook upon
the main line is drawn back upon the loop upon the
end of the "choker," while the trip line releases the

180

CLEARING AND GRUBBING

"choker" and brings back the "choker." This
"choker" very rarely fails to release its load and the
load can never be dropped, as it often is when using
the old style choker. Its nse makes the position of
the pile-man unnecessary, thus eliminating that dan-
gerous work. Fully twice as many loads can be put
upon the pile by the use of this device as by the use of
the old style "choker." It is no heavier and is fully
as easy to handle as the old one, being practically the
same thing with the addition of the small trip line that
requires to be hooked to the "choker hook" at each
loading.

"cf >"'"[£,

Fig. 54. Self-Releasing Choker

Another improvement can be made by using an electric
bell outfit for signaling instead of the whistle wire or
the other mode of signaling. This will be almost a
necessity when using a high-speed engine and the self-
releasing ' ' choker. ' ' This outfit should consist of a good
bell, which could be fastened to the roof of the engine

HAND, PIORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 181

shed, a strong battery that also may be placed in a box
above the engine, the lead wires well insulated and
made into a cable that can be laid upon the ground and
brought around the pole to where the hook-tender and
helpers are at work. The signals can be given by one
of these men, thus dispensing with an extra man to do
this work.

A small saving can be effected by placing spring
"grease cups" upon the blocks on the gin pole. These
cups should be large enough to hold a week's supply.
It requires about 30 mins. each day to send a man up
to oil these blocks when cups are not used.

Estimate and specifications for a donkey engine out-
fit. The following outfit is given by Mr. Sydney Ash-
down, a man experienced in the donkey engine method
of clearing land, having been with the Canadian Pacific
Railway for some years in their land clearing operations,
as the best outfit to be had for land clearing :

A compound geared yarder with two speeds to the
main drum, giving approximately 100 and 250 ft. per
min. with the haul-back geared to run at 300 to 350 ft.
per min. The cylinders should be 9 by 10 ins. or 10 by
12 ins. The hauling drum should be fitted with a steam
friction. The boiler should be extra large.

There should be 1,000 ft. of IVs-inch main line of 6
strands of 19 wires each and 2,000 ft. of %-inch haul-
back line of 6 strands of 19 wires each.

Donkey Engine $3,500

Main line 200

Haul-baelt line 150

Bull block for gin pole 75

Six self-releasing chokers — %-in., %-in., 1-in 60

Four haul-back blocks, hooks and swivels 70

Four guy lines ( 1-in. ) 1,000 ft 150

One lead block for haul-back line 35

Electric signal outfit 10

Tools, extra hooks, blocks, etc 150

Total outfit $4,400

While this outfit is too expensive for small owners it
could be purchased by a community or one or more such
oufits could be operated by a county or a company for

182 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

clearing land. It would be found to be more satisfactory
than the make-shift outfits usually found doing this
work.

Gasoline engines for stump pulling. A few gasoline
engines of small power have been tried in stump pulling
upon small tracts of clearing. They are generally so
arranged that the engine runs continuously, while the
drums are started or stopped by means of a clutch or
similar arrangement. In the gearing of these small
engine outfits all speed is sacrificed to power. This
makes them very slow, the load traveling to the pile
much slower than a man can walk ; as there is no change
of speed no' long hauls are made. Stumps must be very
well split and loosened for an outfit of this kind and the
piles are necessarily small. Two men can handle an
outfit.

Two men with a good team, blocks and line can do
fully as much as one of these outfits and at about the
same cost.

TABLE XVI

Cost of Clearing Land by Various Methods in Washington
AND Oregon

Cost per Acre
2 acres, bench land Powder & Stump puller $200

2 acres, low land Powder k Stump puller $200

(Many large cedar stumps)
35 acres bench land, by con- Powder & Stump puller $125

tract

10 acres, high land Powder & Team $120

2 acres, high land Powder & Burning $100

2 acres, high land (contract) Powder & Grubbing $112

40 acres, high land Donkey Engine $218

(All grubbing and leveling

included)
100 acres, high land Donkey Engine $105

(80 acres cleared for plow;
80 acres cleared for pas-
ture; stumps not re-
moved )
5 acres, high land Donkey Engine $116

(48 stumps per acre)
1,000 acres, high land Donkey Engine & Stump

(light clearing) puller $75 to $125

50 acres, high and low land Donkey Engine $100 to $150

(In small tracts)

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 183

5 acres, high land
(Stumps only; other tracts
from $100 to $150 per
acre)

7 acres, low land
(Heavy clearing)

12 acres, low land

23 acres, valley land
(Meadow; 15 stumps per

acre)
20 acres, valley land
12 acres, valley land
(Cleared of stumps only)

24 acres, valley land
(Cleared of stumps only)

12 acres, valley land

(Spruce stumps)
20 acres, high land

28% days' time; cleai-ed of
stumps only)
67 acres, high land

(Light clearing)
10 acres, bench land

(Heavy clearing)
20 acres, valley land
40 acres, bench land

(Contract)
10 acres, bench land
4 acres, bench clay

10 acres, bench clay
If^o acres, low bench

(Ween timber, hemlock, fir,
spruce )
700 afires, valley land

(Brush; few stumps)
300 acres, bench land

11 acres, valley land
(Pine, maple and cotton-
wood)

4 acres, high land

5 acres, bench land
(Second growth fir, 1 to 3

ft.)
1 acre, bench land

(Large fir stumps)
5 acres, bench land

25 acres, valley land
(Large stumps not taken

out)
35 acres, high land
(Heavy clearing)

Donkey Engine

Donkey Engine

Cost per Acre

$120

Donkey Engine
Donkey Engine

$84
$26

Donlcey Engine
Donkey Engine

$105
$30

Donkey Engine

$40

Donkey Engine

$100

Donkey Engine

$55

Donkey Engine

$68

Donkey Engine

$123

Donkey Engine
Donkey Engine

$100
$115

Donkey Engine
Powder & Team
Powder & Grubbing
Powder & Grubbing

$100
$130
$150
$357

Donltey Engine

Donkey Engine
Powder & Grubbing

Powder & Grubbing
Powder & Grubbing

Powder & Grubbing

Grubbing
Grubbing &' Team

Donliey Engine

$30

$100
$43

$100
$100

$125

$125

184 ' CLEARING AND GRUBBING

Cost per Acre

6 acres, bench land Powder & Stump puller $50

(Meadow, cedar and fir

stumps only)

131^ acres, high land Powder & Stump puller $90

46.7 acres, high land Stump burning Machine $65

(40 stumps per acre)
9 acres, valley land Donkey Engine $125

( Spruce stumps, some work
done before)

1 acre, valley land Donkey Engine $100
( Spruce stumps only ; other

work done)
80 acres, bench land Donkey Engine $20

(Wood and lumber sold
from this tract; 600 cords
wood, 80,000 ft. b. m. lum-
ber)

2 acres, bench land Powder & Team $150
17 acres, bench land Powder & Team $105

(U. S. Magazine site, 18
ins. below surface)

Clyde Iron Works stump-pulling machine. This
was described in Engineering News, Sept. 24, 3914:
The machine described below will clear a tract of five
acres (about 600x350 ft.) at one setting, and it pulls
the stumps with a horizontal cable.

The machine, shown in Fig. 55, consists of a frame
of 15-in. steel I-beams mounted on a pair of longitudinal
9-in. I-beams which form the runners. Each runner is
curved upward to enable the machine to ride over ob-
structions, and is shod with a steel plate 20 in. wide.
Steel plates are riveted to the bottom of the floor-beams
of the frame, to protect the machinery from dirt and to
give additional support on very soft ground. At the
front end is a steel A-frame, 16 ft. high, to which are
attached the guy lines of the 36-ft. boom. At the rear
end is the hoisting engine and a vertical boiler, and over
it may be a canopy roof for the protection of the
operator. The frame is 32 x 9 ft., and the machine (with
its cables and all equipment complete) weighs about 35
tons. Lighter machines of the same type are built.

A double-cylinder three-drum engine is used, with
cylinders 10 x 12 in. for the larger machines. The front
drum carries the pulling cable, and is geared for two

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 185

v.'f^v-

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Sl^L^

i|Jl^5^^BWH|^^^^^B

/

I Y )^B!^^H^^^^^I

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il

/^^^^ff/SBI^^

n3

186 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

speeds ; for pulling the stump it exerts a pull of 145,000
lbs. with a speed of 30 ft. per min., while for skidding
or hauling in the stump it has a speed of 350 ft. per min.
The rear drum carries the outhaul cable for running out
the pulling cable after it has brought in a stump, giving
a speed of 800 ft. per min. The middle drum carries
the piling line which is led over the boom and is used
for stacking the stumps in piles ready for burning. The
hoisting capacity is 10 tons.

When the machine is in position it is anchored by
steel spuds driven into the ground through holes in the
runners, or by chains attached to trees or stumps in the
rear. The outhaul cable is then led around the area to
be cleared, being passed through snatch blocks, as shown
at 1, 2, 3 and 4, in Fig. 56, and led back to the machine,
where its end is attached to the pulling cable.

The drum then hauls on the outhaul cable, thus run-
ning out the pulling cable to the first stump (Fig. 56).
A choker line or short steel cable, having a hook at one
end and a loop in the other, is then wrapped around the
stump, and the loop is slipped over the hook on the pull-
ing cable. The drum of this cable then hauls in on the
slow gear until the stump is pulled from the ground, and
then on, the high gear until the stump is deposited at the
machine. The choker line is released automatically and
taken back by the outhaul cable.

When the machine has pulled all the stumps between
it and point 4, the snatch block is shifted successively
to points in the line 4r-3, as shown. Then snatch block
No. 4 is dispensed with, and the cable led directly to
block N'o. 3. This in turn is shifted toward No. 2, and is
then removed, and No. 2 is then shifted in the same way.
As the : positions of the snatch block are changed, the
machine swings so that it is always in the line of the
direct pull.

The eniire area having been cleared, the pulling line
is run out and anchored at the next position (shown at
B, Fig. 56) and by hauling on this cable the machine
pulls itself forward to that position. The outhaul cable
is then led around the new area and work proceeds as
before.

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 187

One piece of clearing done in Texas was on heavy clay
land with pine stumps 10 to 40 ins. diameter averaging
44 per acre. The machine pulled, skidded and piled
about 110 stumps per day, at a labor cost of about 28
cts. per stump, or $12.32 per acre, clearing about 21/2
acres per day. The working force was as follows, with a
total daily cost of $30, exclusive of fuel, interest, repairs
and depreciation :

1 Foreman $5.00

1 Engineman 3.50

1 Leverman 2.00

1 Fireman 2.(,0

1 Helper 2.00

2 Hookers (each) $2.00

1 Tongman 2.00

1 Stump grubber 1.50

1 Water team 4.00

1 Fuel team 4.00

The machine is built by the Clyde Iron Works,
Duluth, Minn.

of

-xifumps

'POSmoN

A

Sfump
Puller

■/^ ? 2 2 r

Fig. 56. Diagram Showing Field Arrangement of Clyde Land-
Clearing Machine

A powerful steam land-clearing machine. The fol-
lowing account is taken from Engineering and Contract-
ing, Aug. 12, 1914 :

188 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

The engine shown in the illustration, Fig. 57, the
Pioneer land-clearing machine, was designed to pull
the largest stumps as well as the smallest, and with the
further idea that such a machine ought to be able to
travel readily from place to place, under its own power,
to reach various jobs, or different parts of the same job.
The difficulty in designing a light, portable machine of
this kind was to obtain sufficient power and strength for
the heavy work without exceeding the weight and size of
the ordinary traction engine. This was accomplished by
the use of a large steel tripod, which is swung from the
side of the engine in such a way that while pulling the
stump the tripod rests solidly on the ground, entirely
free from rigid connection with the machine ; while for
moving from stump to stump the tripod is tilted and
raised so that it hangs entirely from the engine and is
clear and free of the ground.

The machine is steam power, of 20 horse-power ca-
pacity. It has a vertical boiler and a horizontal engine
of a very rugged type, mounted on a substantial frame
of structural steel. The engine is geared back through
the medium of a suitable clutch, to the traction
mechanism; while forward the power is applied to two
drums mounted on the front end of the frame, geared
down to give a very powerful pull. An auxiliary drum
mounted on the gallows frame at the sides raises and
lowers the tripod.

The wire rope which winds upon one of the drums
leads to a pair of blocks suspended from the apex of
the tripod, and by varying the number and arrangement
of the sheaves practically any desired power eould be
obtained. However, it has been found that a pull about
45 tons, which is easily within the capacity of the ma-
chine using a pair of 5-sheave blocks, is ample for pulling
stumps up to 4 ft. diameter. After the stump is pulled
it is but the work of a few moments to lift the tripod,
locate over the next stump, and drop the tripod into
position again.

However, it is not necessary to use the tripod except
for that small percentage of the stumps which are of
the largest size. All the lighter growth, grubs and

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 189

smaller stumps are pulled by the ropes running forward
direct off the drums. Working in this manner it is best
to use plow steel wire ropes, % in. diameter, and about
250 ft. long. The engine is located at a spot where it
can be anchored to a stump in the rear, and where a,
big stump ahead will serve to attach two head blocks
for the purpose of leading the ropes fairly onto the
drums. Through these blocks the two ropes work simul-
taneously, covering a circle at one setting, amounting
with the above length of rope to an area of over three
acres.

The drums give a direct pull of about 7 tons, which
suffices for all stumps up to 15 ins. diameter; and by
doubling' back through a single block, which involves
but little loss of time, everything up to 20 ins. diameter
is pulled. The comparatively light rope used enables
it to be handled at maximum speed, a thing very essential
where the grubbing is heavy.

The tripod also affords a means of piling the stumps.
For this operation the rope is run through a block at
the top of the tripod, and the tripod guyed to a stump
in the rear. The stumps can then be skidded in, a higher
speed on the drums being provided for this purpose,
and they are readily dragged up into piles of consider-
able height.

This machine is sold by the Pioneer Land-Clearing
Machine Co., 1220 First National Bank Bldg., Chicago.
It is adapted to the use of parties developing tracts of
land on a considerable scale; or for individuals located
within the cut-over districts either north or south, it
affords an opportunity for profitable contracting, as
there is any amount of work to be had at profitable
prices.

A rotary stump-cutting machine. {Engineering and
Contracting, Jan. 20, 1915.) Fig. 58 shows a machine
that removes stumps in an entirely different way from
any previous device. It is known as the Moore rotary
stump cutter. The novel features of this machine are
its simple mechanism, its portability, and the rapidity
with which it cuts out a stump.

The machine is mounted in an A-frame, and can be

190

CLEARING AND GRUBBING

attached to the front of any standard oil engine tractor
of 30 horse-power. The power to drive the cutter is
transmitted by either a link or a rubber belt from the
main engine shaft on the tractor ; the pullies are sized so
that the cutter will develop 500 revolutions per minute,
and the feed regulated to give it a boring speed of 3 ft.

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 191

Fig. 58. Rotary Stump Cutting Machine

192 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

per minute, or ^ q in. per revolution. The cutter has a
range of 6 ft., and is capable of boring 20 ins. beneath
the surface of the earth. The chips are recovered from
the cutter by a vacuum which deposits them to the rear
to be either sacked or baled. Chips from the pine stump
are valuable, as they contain resinous materials, from
which the reduction plants manufacture various by-
products. Quoting Mr. R. E. Doolittle's (acting chief
of the Bureau of Chemistry) report on May 9, 1912,
there are $48.17 of different resinous by-products to the
cord of pine stumpage.

This machine is best adapted to operate in the cut-
over pine flats of this country where it will reclaim the
land for agricultural purposes and at the same operation
recover the valuable resinous material that is going to
waste. The machine weighs 4,000 lbs., is economical to
operate, and opens up a new field for contractors. The
machine is controlled and manufactured by the Moore
Rotary Stump Cutter Co., Inc., 213 Hennen Bldg., New
Orleans, La.

Stump piling derrick and its use. The ultimate dis-
posal of stumps is a serious problem often costing as
"much as the blasting and pulling. The following on
this subject is taken from Bulletin 134 of the University
of Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station by A. J.
McGuire :

In clearing land the piling and burning of stumps,
small brush, trees and old logs are important. The chief
objection to the use of a stump-puller alone on stumps
over 12 ins. in diameter is that too much dirt clings to
the roots. They are heavy to handle and hard to burn.
The piling and burning must always be considered, as
they have a great deal to do with the total expense.

The brush should be piled compactly in piles rather
than in windrows. If the brush is very large and there
are many small trees, the piles should be made tall and
somewhat like a wigwam in shape. The brush and tree
trunks should be in an upright position to secure good
draft in order that the burning may be more complete.
Old logs , and trees that cannot be made into cordwood
should be skidded together with a team and burned as

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 193

soon as possible after piling, as old logs will dry out
slowly if rained upon. Fig. 59 shows a derrick for
piling stumps, with self-tripping tongs. By means of
the guy ropes the mast is set to lean slightly toward the
pile, so when the stump is raised off the ground it swings,
by its own weight, over the pile or fire.

Stump Piling Derriclt

When very large stumps are blown out, or medium-
sized ones pulled out, it requires a derrick to pile them
satisfactorily for burning. Medium-sized stumps that
have been blown out can be easily piled by hand. A
good way is to make a rack for a low wagon for hauling
the pieces and to begin the burning as soon as the piling
is commenced. Start fires in several different places in
the field, and, as each load is put on the wagon, haul it

194 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

to the nearest fire. If each load is piled on a different
flre, the hauls will be shortened and each fire will be
burned down sufficiently by the time .the next load is
brought to allow of its being driven up close to the fire
and the pieces thrown directly on. If the piles are built
up before burning, they should be tended after firing to
prevent the fire from going out before the pile is com-
pletely burned. If the fire is properly tended and the
outside pieces are constantly shoved into the center, the
whole pile can usually be burned. It is easy to keep a
fire going, but it is difficult to start it again if it dies
before the pile is entirely consumed.

In sections where most of the timber has been cut, it
will pay to pile and keep the stumps for fuel. Pine
stumps furnish splendid fire-wood. It is best to look
over the woodlot before burning the stumps.

If second-growth timber is to be removed and trees
between 4 and 12 ins. in diameter are very numerous,
it is cheapest to grub and pull if the land is needed for
immediate use. This can be done best by cutting a few
of the roots and pulling the tree out with a team or
stump-puller. When a team is used, greater leverage
can be secured by fastening the chain high up on the
trunk. In this way a strong, quick team can pull out a
good-sized tree when assistance is given by cutting the
chief roots, especially if the trees are shallow-rooted as
they generally are where the growth is thick.

Cost of clearing and grubbing the Scioto River re-
servoir in Ohio. Mr. Julian Griggs, in the Journal of
the American Society of Municipal Improvements and
in Engineering and Contracting. Oct. 17, 1906, gives the
following description of the methods and costs of clear-
ing and grubbing the reservoir formed by the Scioto
River dam, near Columbus, Ohio :

All vegetable growth was cut down even with the
ground, gathered into heaps, and burned, and the stumps
and roots of all trees and shrubs 1 inch or more in di-
ameter were grubbed to a depth of 1 ft. below the surface
of the ground, gathered and burned. About 36 acres
had been cultivated, but the remaining 255 acres were
thickly covered with a growth of trees and shrubs, eon-

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 195

sisting mainly of elm, oak, beech, hickory, maple, buck-
eye, locust and sycamore, the latter growing as large as
5 ft. in diameter. The shrubs included osage, orange,
willow and paw-paw, and the bottom lands supported a
rank growth of weeds, horse cane 8 to 13 ft, high pre-
dominating. Of the area cleared, 5.2 acres lay below
the dam and was not grubbed.

The work was performed by contract at a price of $70
per acre. The men were divided into three gangs : (1)
A trimming gang, consisting of from 4 to 20 men under
a foreman, equipped with axes and hoes, trimmed the
limbs from the large trees as high as they could reach,
cut oS the small trees about 2 ft. from the ground, and
grubbed out the brush and roots and gathered into piles
everything that could be burned. (2) A pulling gang
of from 6 to 12 laborers, equipped with a team of horses
and a windlass or capstan stump-puller, pulled up the
trees and stumps. (3) A cutting gang, consisting at
times of the pulling gang and at others of a third gang,
cut the trees and stumps into pieces that could be readily
handled, grubbed out the exposed roots, and piled the
whole for burning with the exception of such timber as
could be saved for sawing.

Most of the stumps and many of the large trees were
loosened or broken up with dynamite. The stumps were
more difSeult to grub than the trees.

A common harrow was the best tool for breaking down
and grubbing the weeds.

About 3,000 saw-logs were sold at $2.50 per 1,000 ft.
B. M. More could have been sold had dynamite not
shattered them.

The cost of the work was, $159.50 per acre, as follows :

255 days, superintendent, at $4.17 $ 1,063

255 days, timekeepers, at $1.75 446

1,030 days, foremen, at $2.50 3,325

205 days, foremen, at $2.00 410

54 days, carpenter, at $2.00 ' 108

435 days, dynamite mee, at $1.75 761

14,491 days, laborers, at $1.50 21,737

222 days, single horse, at $1.50 333

847 days, 2-horse team, at $3.50 2,964

68,000 lbs. dynamite, at $0,115 7,820

196 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

Machinery ajid repairs 1,800

Total, 255.6 acres at $159.50 $40,767

Due to delay in constructing the dam the entire site
became covered with weeds during the following sum-
mer. These were cleared by day labor. "Where possible
a horse rake was used in gathering the weeds. This
work cost $1,969 or about $7.86 per acre.

Cost of grubbing Douglas fir stumps. {Engineering
and Contracting, June 15, 1910.) The following method
was employed in clearing land of Douglas fir stumps on
the Pacific Coast : A gin pole was erected in the middle
of a 15- to 20-acre trabt and a 60 horse-power logging
engine was anchored near the outside of the plot. A
1%-in. cable was passed through the pulley at the top
of the gin pole and hitched to the stumps in turn, each
of which was hauled to the big pile which soon sur-
rounded the base of the pole. When all the stumps had
been drawn to the pile, the whole was fired and the
small refuse cleaned up and burned. The cost of operat-
ing one machine for a week, during which time an aver-
age of 4 acres was cleared, was as follows :

Engineer, per week $ 23

Fireman 12

Hook tender 24

Assistant tender 21

Signalman 18

Line assistant 21

Shovelman 12

Laborer 12

Water team 16

Wood, 15 cords, at $3.80 57

Powder 200

Dynamite 15

Fuse 7

Caps 1

Total for four acres

Cost per acre, $100.75, exclusive of interest, depreciation and
repairs.

Added to the above is the cost of slashing the -small
growth which is put at $50 an acre, and the final clean-
ing which can usually be done for $10 an acre. This

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 197

makes a grand total of $169.75 per acre for making the
land ready for grading, or in the case of agriculture,
ready for plowing.

About two days was usually taken in moving from
one plot of land to another, including the setting up of
the gin pole, anchoring and making ready for starting.
There is a small cost which should be allowed for burn-
ing the piles amounting to nearly $10 an acre. The cost
of plant was as follows:

Sixty horsepower donkey engine $3,750

1,300 ft. iyj,-in. wire cable 400

4,000 ft. %-in. haul-back rope 300

Other sundries 100

Total $4,550

These data are compiled from the Canadian Engineer
for Jan. 28, 1910.

Cost at Springfield, Mass. In a paper read by
Charles R. Gow before the Boston Society of Civil Engi-
neers and published in Engineering and Contracting,
Jan. 18, 1911, the cost of clearing and grubbing for a
water purification works at Springfield, Mass., is given
as follows :

The work required to be done under this classification
included the removal of stumps, roots, brush and rub-
bish from about 10.44 acres, comprising the area covered
by the sedimentation basin and the earth dam. This
site had originally contained a rather thick growth of
timber, the average size of which may have been 12 ins.
in diameter, but nearly all ■ of this timber had been
cleared prior to the letting of the contract, so that the
removal of stumps and roots only was necessary.

The removal of stumps, consisting largely of red oaks,
chestnuts and maple, was exceedingly difficult. The
land was very rocky, with frequent outcroppings of
ledge, and a large percentage of the stump roots either
grew out of fissures in the ledge or extended underneath
large bowlders. A stump-pulling machine of the Hawk-
Eye type was used, consisting of a vertical windlass
operated by a lever and a horse traveling in a circle. A
consic'erable number of stumps were removed by blast-

198 CLEARINa AND GEUBBING

ing, and many of them too large for the puller to handle
were split with dynamite and pulled piecemeal.

A record of the number of stumps removed was kept
and showed an average of 475 per acre. Owing to the
fact that the basin was designed for use as a sedimenta-
tion basin, and that its bottom would consequently be
covered by an increasing depth of silt and vegetable de-
posit, complete grubbing was not required. The bottom
was entirely cleared of stumps, large roots and all loose
material and was then burned over. The cost per acre
for this grubbing (475 stumps per acre) is shown in the
following table:

Per acre

Labor pulling stumps $ 83.76

Teams pulling stumps 28.15

Explosives 9.06

Total cost for stump pulling $120.97

Labor burning stumps $ 37.64

Stump puller and special tools 17.32

Total $ 54.96

Cost per stump pulled, 37 cts.

Labor grubbing roots $ 56.16

Teams grubbing roots 2.09

Special tools and supplies 1.97

Total cost of grubbing $ 60.22

General expense, 12.9 per cent 30.46

Total cost per acre $266.61

The cost as shown above is undoubtedly high for this
class of work and may be accounted for partly by the
fact that no special study was made of the possibilities
of economic handling. This work was in general used
as a spare job whenever there were extra men available.
On the other hand, there is little question that the cost
of grubbing work is too often underestimated and under-
bid and that the actual costs are in many cases much
higher than popular impression would indicate. The
general character of this work was probably more dif-
ficult than the average case, the rocky soil and the nature
of the growth rendering it very difficult. Had it been

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 109

necessary, however, to completely remove all fine roots,
the above figures would have been largely increased.

Per acre
The contract price for grubbing was .... $150'

The maximum price bid was 300'

Tlie minimum price bid was 100

The average price bid was 194

Costs of clearing land using a home-made horse
stump piler. The following, by B. F. Faast, is from
Engineering and Contracting, Nov. 22, 1911 : Fig. 60
shows one of the cheapest ways yet devised for piling
stumps and fallen timber. This piler is easily hauled

Home Made Stump Piling Machine

to the stump field by a team of horses. The cable runs
out 200 ft. or more. Additional power can be secured
by adding more pulley blocks. The team is hitched on
to one end of the cable and the stumps are hauled to the
piler, are picked up by the swinging boom and dropped
into piles at one operation. These piles are made about
20 ft. high. In this way large piles can be built so that
when, fired there will be heat enough to burn practically
all the stumpis. The following figures show the cost of
clearing a 20-acre piece of hardwood land by this
method :
Average pine stumps per acre, $15 ; average hardwood

200 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

stumps per acre, $30; average windfall logs per acre,
$10; average diameter of hardwood stumps, 14 ins.;
average diameter of pine stumps, 30 ins. ; average cost
per acre, including pulling and piling stumps and wind-
fall logs, $16. Timber was cut four years before pulling
the stumps.

A very high cost of clearing, logging and grubbing
a railway right of way. The following cost data relate
to work done by company forces on a railway right of
way on the Pacific Coast, where the timber was exceed-
ingly dense and large : The trees were mostly large firs,
that averaged about 3 ft. in diameter, but no measure-
ments were made of the diameter.

About 7 miles of right of way, averaging about 75 ft.
wide, and totaling nearly 70 acres, were first logged off.
The logs scaled 5,700,000 ft. B. M. or about 82,000 board
feet per acre.

The cost of falling the trees and yarding the logs into
piles along the right of way was as follows per 1,000 ft.
B. M. :

Labor: Per M.

Swamping, at 25 cts. per hr $0.12

Falling, at 31 cts. per hr 0.37

Bucking and Stripping, at 30 cts. per hr 0.43

Building landings, at 31 cts. per hr O.IG

Moving "donkey," at 31 cts. per hr 0.10

Yarding logs, at 31 cts. per hr 1.00

Water supply, at 30 cts. per hr. 0.17

Repairing "donkey," at 31 cts. per hr 0.04

Miscellaneous hauling, at 34 cts. per hr 0.04

Moving equipment to job at 31 cts. per hr 0.05

Miscellaneous labor, at 27 cts. per hr 0.04

Total construction labor 2.52

Other labor 0.16

Foremen, at 49 cts. per hr 0.18

Time keepers, at 30 cts. per hr 0.09

Blacksmith, at 31 cts. per hr 0.04

Total Labor $3.00

Plant :

Rent of donkey engines $0.17

Repairs of donkey engines 0.02

Wire ropes 0.06

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMl' -PULLERS 201

Plant: Per M.

Temporary construction $0.11

Miscellaneous 0.06

Total Plant, Expense $0.42

Total Labor and Plant $3.42

Multiplying any of the above cost items by 5,700 gives
the total cost of the item. The grand total for labor was
$17,100 for 55,000 hrs., or about 31 ets. per hour. The
total cost of falling and yarding the logs was about $280
per acre inclusive of the "plant expense."

About a third of the logs were loaded on railway
, logging trucks at the following cost per 1,000 ft. B. M. :

Labor Loading: Per M.

Loading crew, 33 cts. per hr $0.06

Other labor 0.10

Train crew, at 32 cts. per hr 0.09

Water supply, and fuel, at 32 cts. per hr 0.03

. Repairing "donkey" and rigging 0.05

Repairing logging cars 0.01

Foreman, at 44 cts. per hr 0.17

Total Labor Loading $1.11

Plant Loading:

Temporary construction $0.16

Interest and depreciation of "donkey" 0.26

Repairs on "donkey" 0.13

Cable, blocks, etc 0.08

Rent of cars and locomotive 0.30

Water supply, etc 0.03

Total Plant $0.96

Total Labor and Plant Loading $2.07

This makes a total of $5.49 per M. ft. B. M. for fall-
ing, yarding and loading logs, exclusive of hauling.
Hauling costs from $0.50 to $1.00 per M. where the haul
to the saw-mill is short.

Gruiiing logged-off land. After logging off. the 7Q

202 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

acres as above recorded, the clearing of underbrush and
dead timber and the removal of stumps was done in
two sections, one of 45 acres and one of 25 acres. The
first section cost $211 an acre for labor alone (exclusive
of explosives) and the second section cost $317 an acre
for labor alone. The detail labor cost of this clearing
and grubbing on section No. 1 was as follows per acre
(after the trees had been felled, cut up and yarded) :

Labor : Per acre

Slashing and burning brush ahead $ 45.00

Pulling and piling stumps and logs 48.86

Clearing and burning behind donkey 81.03

Blasting stumps 9.18

Repairing "donkey" and rigging 0.57

Moving "donkey" from camp to camp 0.75

Blacksmith 5.30

Water supply 2.45

Miscellaneous hauling 0.71

Filing saws 1.04

Timekeeper 5.05

Foreman 10.92

Total labor $2ig.86

The above given labor amounted to nearly 35,000 hrs.
at 27 cts. per hour. To this labor cost of $211 an acre
for clearing and grubbing (after logging had been done)
there must be added the cost of explosives and plant,
which averaged $82 an acre as shown in detail later on.
This gives us a total of $293 an acre for clearing and
grubbing, section No. 1 after falling the trees and yard-
ing logs, which, as above shown, cost $280 an acre, mak-
ing a grand total of $573 an acre.

The labor cost of clearing section No. 2, of 25 acres,
was $317 per acre as follows :

Labor ; Per acre

Slashing and burning brush ahead $ 38.13

Pulling and piling stumps and logs 70.71

Clearing and burning behind 158.61

Blasting stumps 9.51

Repairing "donkey" 0.15

Blacksmithing 3.58

y^ater supply ,,...,,., ,.,..,,.., 5,93

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 203

Labor : Per acre

Miscellaneous hauling $0.37

Timekeeper 10.23

Foreman 19.83

Total Labor $317.05

To this must be added about $82 an acre for explosives
and plant, making a total of $399 an acre for clearing
and grubbing after falling the trees and j'arding the
logs, which, as above shown, cost $280 an acre. This
makes a grand total of $679 an acre !

Section No. 3, of 31 acres, had been logged off 20 years
previously. It had a second growth of very heavy brush
and small trees some of which were 6 ins. in diameter.
The fir stumps, however, were sound and had to be
blasted out. All second growth was close cut, and all
old stumps were removed for the full width of right of
way, and piled by a donkey engine. The old "down-
logs" were also piled, and the whole was burned. The
labor cost per acre was $209, as follows:

Per acre

Slashing and burning ahead, 23 cts. per hr $ 43.44

Bucking (or sawing up logs) 23 cts. per hr 2.04

Blasting stumps, at 35 cts. per hr 7.45

Blasting old logs, at 32 cts. per hr 0.97

Pulling and piling stumps and logs with "donkey,"

at 30 cts. per hr 49.14

Clearing and burning behind "donkey," at 25 cts.

per hr 67.02

Repairing "donkey" and rigging, at 30 cts. per hr. 1.82

Unloading and setting "donkey" ($35) 1.15

Making sled for "donkey" ($40), at 36 cts. per hr. 1.30

Rigging "donkey" ($18) at 38 cts. per hr 0.58

Blacksmith, at 30 cts. per hr 6.95

Water supply, at 35 cts. per hr 8.70

Hauling and miscellaneous 1.62

Timekeeper, at 26 cts. per hr 5.46

Foreman, at 44 cts. per hr 11.01

Total Labor, average 27.3 cts. per hr $209.25

The explosives cost $34 per acre, and the plant (rental,
repairs, etc.) cost $54 per acre, in addition to the above
given labor cost of $209, making a total of $297 per acre,
exclusive of the cost of falling and logging which had
been done 20 years previously.

204 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

Section No. 4, of 24 acres, had been recently logged
off. About one-quarter of this section had been covered
with small timber (of a size suitable for "piles"), so
that the removal of stumps, brush and old logs was much
less expensive than for any of the three sections pre-
viously described. The labor cost on section No. 4 was
$159 per acre, or $50 less than on section No. 3.

The four sections totaled 125 acres, and the average
cost of clearing brush and "down-logs," removing
stumps, and burning the entire mass, was as follows per
acre:

Labor $221.46

Plant and explosives 81.70

Total per acre $303.16

This, it should be remembered, is exclusive of the cost
of falling trees and logging off the merchantable timber.
The average cost of plant and explosives was as fol-
lows per acre :

Per acre
Rent of "donkey engines." $14.09

Oil 0.58

Repairs and supplies for "donkey" 6.75

Blacksmith shop supplies 3.36

Water supply materials (pipe, pump, etc.) 8.15

Freight and drayage 2.02

Wire rope 9.55

Tools (axes, saws, sheaves, etc.) 7.44

Miscellaneous 1.77

Total Plant $53.71

Explosives (powder, fuse and caps) 27.99

Total Plant and Explosives $81.70

The price paid for "stumping powder" was 9.8 cts.
per lb. Only a small amount of 49 per cent dynamite
was used at 12 cts. per lb. Caps (XXX) cost 75 cts.
per 100. Fuse cost 24 cts. per 100 ft. About 8 ins.
of fuse and one-fifth of a cap were used per pound of
powder. The work above described was all done by the
railway company's own forces. It could probably have
been done by contract at less cost per acre, but the com-

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 205

pany believed the saving thus effected would be more
than offset by possible delays under a contract.

I have no records of higher costs for similar work, but
the following conditions should be remembered in this
connection :

First, the right of way was narrow (75 ft.). A nar-
row of strip of land cannot be cleared as cheaply as a
wide area. Second, the land had to be cleared and
grubbed for the full width of the right of way, as it was
nearly level land and low lying. Third, the under-
growth was rank, and the old fir stumps were numerous
and very large. Fourth, wages were high.

Cost of pulling small trees with a traction engine.
Mr. P. Hutchinson contributed the following to Engi-
neering and Contracting, May 7, 1913 : A field of about
60 acres had been neglected for manj"- years and was
covered with a scattering growth of small trees, varying
from saplings 1 inch in diameter to young trees having
a diameter of 7 or 8 ins. It was desired to clean up this
land as cheaply and also as quickly as possible.

The owners of the land had a gasoline-kerosene
traction engine of 45 horse-power, 4 cylinders, and with
this it was determined to attempt to pull the saplings
out bodily, without the aid of falls or snatch blocks.
A %-in. Norway iron chain 30 ft. long was also avail-
able. One end of this chain was attached to the draw
bar of the engine by means of a clevis, and the other end
was given one and one-half turns around the tree to be
pulled, and the end of the chain made fast with a grab
hook. The first trees attempted were about 3 ins. in
diameter, of persimmon, elm and black jack, all well
rooted. Taken one at a time, they pulled out without
great difficulty. The experiment was next tried of. pull-
ing two trees with one hitch, by taking two turns of the
chain about the first tree and leading the chain back to
a second. This proved feasible, and the plan was ex-
tended, as experience was gained, to as many hitches as
were permitted by the length of chain available, when
the trees were iiot too large.

For the larger trees (4 to 8 ins.) a single pull to each
tree was taken. "We quickly learned to make the hitch

206 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

as high above the ground as practicable, and a block of
wood, 8 or 10 ins. in diameter by 4 ft. long, was thrown
on the ground against the tree and directly under and
at right angles to the chain. This bearing acted as a
fulcrum when the tree was bent over by the pull, and
served to bring a very powerful pull on the roots remote
from the engine. In the case of a few 8-in. black locusts,
a man stood by the tree with an ax and struck off the
roots remote from the engine as the pull indicated their
location. This process materially assisted. It was
found that the most satisfactory results were secured
with the larger trees when the hitch was made at a
height of from 3 to 5 ft. above the ground.

The gasoline engine ran continuously, and the power
was transmitted through an efSeient friction clutch.
The engine was reversible and could be reversed from
forward to backward motion in 5 seconds. This feature
was of value in providing slack in the chain immediately
after a pull, and in backing down for the next hitch.

It was found necessary to use the full length of the
30-ft. chain in pulling the trees 4 ins. in diameter and
over, as the tops often came down directly towards the
engine with a vicious crash. The most efficient pro-
cedure was found to consist in running the engine at full
speed, and to bring the tractor against the load slowly
until the pulling chain became taut, then suddenly to
bring the full power of the engine against the pull by
means of the friction clutch.

Owing to the intermittent character of the loading
it was found impossible to obtain satisfactory results
with any fuel but gasoline. The fuel consumption was
quite low for the reason that veiy little was used except
at such times as the tractor was actually making a pull.

The following is a statement of the expense attending
the cleaning up of this field, careful count being kept
of every tree pulled. Everything smaller than about
3 ins. was cut down with an ax, but there were not a
great number of these and they are not included in this
statement.

108 gals, gasoline at 14 cts. $15.11

Lubricants 2.32

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 207

One engine maji 4 days at $3 $12.00

Two laborers 4 days at $1.75 14.00

Charge for use of engine 4 days at $5 .... 20.00

Total for 1,246 small trees $63.43

Average cost per tree for pulling 5.1 cts.

The trees were removed by teams, which chained them
to a deep gully, into which they were rolled without
further handling. The cost of removing trees was :

Two teams 3 days at $3 $18.00

Average per tree 1.4 cts.

The total cost of pulling and removing was 65 cts. per
tree, the trees being 3 to 8 ins. in diameter.

Cost and methods of clearing land in the Lake States.
The following ia given by Harry Thompson and Earl D.
Strait, in Bulletin No. 91 of the U. S. Department of
Agriculture :

Two types of stump pullers are used — those that pull
from the side, as the capstan (see Figs. 30 and 31), and
the tripod type, which lifts the stump vertically (Fig.
61).

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208 CLEAEING AND GRUBBING

The capstan type of machine. The capstan type has
the advantage that an acre or more of stumps can be
pulled at a single setting. In pulling small stumps like
scrub oak, jack pine, and certain kinds of hardwood,
the saving in time is quite an item. In pulling small,
sound stumps considerable time is saved in not having
to dig root holes, which are necessary when using a
tripod type of machine. With large stumps which are
partly decayed this saving of time over that required in
the use of the tripod type is about offset by the loss of
time due to stumps breaking off. When this occurs,
each large root must be dug and pulled out separately.
The capstan machine will work on steeper land than the
tripod, though no machine will do very satisfactory work
on a steep hillside. By using the double and triple
power arrangements of lines, the capstan machines will
pull any white-pine stump in the Lake States. Many
practical land-clearing operators using the capstan ma-
chines do not favor the use of the double or triple power
in connection with these machines because of the time
lost in adjusting the blocks and hauling the extra cable.
They prefer to use a small quantity of dynamite under
the larger stumps to split and loosen them. With the
tripod type of machine the use of dynamite to loosen
the stump is unnecessary, because these machines are
powerful enough to pull any white-pine stump.

The tripod type of machine. Many stumping con-
tractors clearing white-pine land in Michigan use the
tripod type of machine. Any stump pulls more easily
when lifted vertically than when pulled from the side.
No anchor stump is required with this type. The
vertical-lift machines are more powerful and seem to
require less repairs than the average capstan machine.
On the other hand, the machine must be moved for each
stump, requiring four or five horses. Holes must be
dug under the roots of each stump.

Pcfwer machines. Power machines have been used to
a limited degree throughout this region. On large tracts
of land, with a good outfit and an efficient crew, the
clearing probably can be done with a power machine as

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 209

cheaply as and considerably faster than by any other
method in use at the present time.

Cost of clearing land. The cost of clearing land in
the Lake States varies greatly. It runs from $5 to about
$100 per acre. The cut-over jack-pine land is the
cheapest to clear and green hardwood and unburned
swamp land the most expensive. The cost of clearing
depends on the following factors :

(1) The quantity of second growth and logs per acre:
The cost of disposing of these runs from $5 to $25 per
acre, and even higher, with an average of about $10.

(2) The kinds of stumps and the number of years
since logging : All green hardwood stumps are very ex-
pensive to remove. Green birch and basswood are per-
haps the most difficult. Most hardwoods decay so that
they can easily be removed within 10 years from the
time of logging, provided the sprout growth is not al-
lowed to develop. Jack-pine and hemlock will decay at
about the same rate as hardwood. Scrub oak is more
resistant to decay than the other hardwoods. White
pine and Norway pine will not decay in 50 years. The
cost of removing pine stumps from 5 years to 25 years
after logging is practically the same.

(3) The size and number of stumps per acre: The
number of white-pine stumps per acre varies from 10 to
100, with an average of about 45. Some hardwood lands
have more than 400 stumps per acre. Some contractors
taking work by the job count the stumps and then add
10 per cent to the number to cover those that were over-
looked or burned close to the ground. It usually is
more expensive to remove severely burned white-pine
stumps than it is to remove a sound stump. For this
reason any system of burning that will not burn the
roots below plow depth does not reduce the cost of
stumping. A pretty close approximation of the average
number of stumps per acre may be obtained by counting
the number of stumps on several sample acres. A circle
of 117.8 ft. radius contains an area of 1 acre. A rapid
and convenient method is to stand on a stump and count
all the stumps within 118 ft. of it.

210 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

(4) Soil and topography: Where stump-pulling ma-
chines are used, the cost of stumping in sandy soils is
less than in heavier soils. Where dynamite is used, the
cost in heavier soils is less than in sandy soils. On many
tracts the land was swampy at the time of the tree
growth, and the rooting system was consequently
shallow. After the tract No. 20 was logged, fires burned
off all the litter and most of the humus, leaving nearly
all of the roots exposed. On many such areas a heavy
team will tip out most of the stumps by a direct pull.
For this reason this type of clearing of clearing is not
usually expensive. (See "Tract No. 20.") It is more
expensive to pull stumps on steep land than it is on
level land. It is more expensive to stump stony land
than land free from stones, because the cleaning of the
stumps is more difficult.

(5) Size of area to be cleared and proximity to other
clearings: Stump-pulling machines will usually reduce
the cost of clearing, but it is not economical to buy one
for the clearing of a small tract. In a locality where
much clearing is being done it may be possible to
cooperate in the purchase of stump pullers and ex-
plosives, and experienced help can be hired cheaper in
such a region.

Table XVII gives an approximate idea of the cost of
clearing white-pine land in this region. Additional
data of the conditions of clearing on the 16 tracts sum-
marized in this table, as well as details of the clearing
of several additional tracts, are given in the pages which
follow :

Tract No. 1 contained 40 acres of level land. The soil
to root depth varied from medium to fine sand. The
blasting was done in the spring of 1913 at a time when
the ground was wet. The tract was logged 32 years
before. Since that time it had been burned repeatedly,
and there was no undergrowth. The tract averaged 4
or 5 small logs per acre. Of the stumps on the tract 16
per cent were so severely burned that it was necessary
to partially dig the roots out and pull them with a
team. The average number of stumps per acre was 50,
of which 20 per cent were Norway pine and 80 per cent

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 211

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212 CLEARING- AND GRUBBING

were white pine. The diameter of the stumps at the
eut-off varied from 6 to 30 ins., the average being 20.2
ins.

The owners of this tract had recently purchased a
capstan stump puller. With an inexperienced crew the
cost of pulling and disposing of the stumps, as shown
in Table XVIII, was practically the same as with dyna-
mite.

TABLE XVIII

Cost op Laboe and Mateeiai. in Cleaeing an Acee of Teact

No. 1

Item Total
Blasting stumps:

1 powder man, 1 day $ 2.00

Dynamite, 75 pounds at 13 cts 9.75

Caps and fuse 1.13

Pulling roots and piling and burning stumps :

3 men, 1 day each at $1.75 5.25

1 man with team at $5.00 5.00

Total coat per acre $23.13

Total cost per stump $ 0.463

Tract No. 2. Three acres of pasture land having a
sandy soil, containing 297 white-pine stumps 18 to 36
ins. in diameter, were blasted by the use of 1,200 lbs.
of powder containing no nitroglycerin. This is an
average of 43 cts. per stump, including the cost of labor
for doing the powder work. The cost of piling and
burning is equal to the cost of blasting, which makes an
average of 86 cts. per stump and approximates $86 per
acre.

Tract No. 3. Seven acres containing 334 white-pine
stumps upon pasture land having a clay soil were
blasted, piled, and burned at a cost of $200, an average
of 60 cts. per stump and $28.57 per acre.

Tract No. 4 contained 24.21 acres of level land having
a sandy-loam soil within root depth and practically no
stones. The outfit used was a capstan stump puller,
with 200 ft. of 1-inch cable on a drum and an addi-
tional length of 150 ft. of 1-inch cable, giving the ma-
chine a pulling radius of nearly 350 ft. The other tools
used were 15 ft. of li4-inch double-power cable, 14 ft.

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 213

of l^g-inch cable, shovels, axes, a bar, and a mattock.
The pine of the tract had been logged about 30 years
ago. The hardwood had been cut off 7 or 8 years ago,
except where noted. The hardwood stumps were so
rotten that they were very easy to remove. The tract
had been burned repeatedly since logging. Scarcely
any vegetation or sod was left to retard the work of
cleaning the soil from the stumps. There was a very
scattering growth of poplar and bird cherry, averaging
about 3 ft. in height on the tract. Included in the 290
stumps were 76 "snags" or stumps that had been
burned close to the ground, leaving the roots in the
ground. These snags are fully as hard to remove as the
average stump. The stumps were piled later in the
year by means of a gin pole. About 70 per cent of the
stumps were white pine. The stumps averaged 19.9 ins.
in diameter.

TABLE XIX

Total
Crew:

2 machine men, 6 days each at $1.75 $ 21.00

2 men to clean stumps, 6 days each at $1.75 . . 21.00

1 team and teamster, P days at $4.00 24.00

Use of machine, 6 days at $1.50 9.00

Piling and burning (estimated) 70.00

Total $145.00

Average per acre { 12 stumps) 5.99

Average per stump 0.50

The average height of the pine stumps was 33 ins.
The average number pulled each day was 48. The cost
of pulling, cleaning, and tipping was 25.9 cts. per
stump. Dynamite had been used in stumping this land,
but because of the loose nature of the soil it had proved
too expensive.

Tract No. 5 contained 50 acres of very gently rolling
pasture land with sandy-loam soil and clay sub-soil.
The outfit consisted of a capstan stump puller, shovels,
axes, and bars. The stumps were piled with a light
derrick. Details of the cost of removing 1,018 stumps
from this field are as follows :

214 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

TABLE XX

■on- <. Total

Pulling stiunps:

1 man, 45 days at $1.75 $ 78.75

1 man, 3 days at $1.75 5.25

1 man with team, 45 days at $4.50 202.50

Use of stump puller, 45 days at $1.50 67.50

Dynamite, 20O pounds, at 12% cents 25.50

Caps and fuse 1.41

Piling and burning stumps:

3 men with teams, 20 days each at $4.50 270.00

1 man, 120 days at $1.75 35.00

Use of stump piler, 20 days at $0.75 15.00

Total $698.91

Average per acre 13.98

Average per stump 0.686

Average per stump for pulling 0.372

Average per stump for piling 0.314

The pulling was done in 45 days, an average of 23
per day. The average number of stumps per acre was
about 20. This tract was logged 30 years ago. Fires
had kept down all underbrush. All logs had been re-
moved. The rooting system of the stumps was shallow.
In burning, the stumps were placed about 50 in a pile.
They were set on fire at night, and usually the following
morning the unburned stumps were replied. The sizes
of 87 white-pine stumps measured on this tract were
as follows: 16-inch, 7; 18-inch, 12; 20-inch, 18; 22-
inch, 17; 24-inch, 16; 26-inch, 10; 28-inch, 4; 30-inch,
2; 32-inch, 1. The average diameter was 22 ins. and
the average height 33 ins.

On a neighboring tract, similar in all respects, the
stumps were pulled and cleaned under contract for 40
cts. each. Here three men with a light team, using a
capstan machine, pulled an average of 20 stumps a day.
The man for whom the stumps were pulled under con-
tract fonnerly used dynamite of 40 per cent strength
and pulled the remaining roots with a team, using a
block and line. He also tried heavy blocks and line.
All these methods were found less satisfactory than a
contract at 40 cts. per stump. In piling stumps a der-
rick was used, and with the same crew an average of
50 stumps a day was piled.

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 215

/

5»«

Fig. 62. Light Derrick Used on Tract 5

Tract No. 6 contained 1 acre of level land, having a
loose, sandy soil. It was cleared in August, 1913. The
outfit used was a capstan stump puller. At the time
of tree growth this tract was v/et ; as a result the stumps
were shallow rooted. The tract was logged about 35
years ago. Eepeated fires since that time had burned
off the litter until the roots of the stumps were well
exposed, and there was practically no undergrowth or
logs on the tract. The sizes of 62 white-pine stumps,
selected at random and measured on this tract, were as
follows: 12-inch, 4; 14-inch, 8; 16-inch, 9; 18-inch, 12;

216 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

20-ineh, 11 ; 22-inch, 9 ; 24-inch, 9. The average diame-
ter was 18.6 ins. and the average number per acre was
78.

The low cost per stump of clearing this tract was due
to the small size of the stumps and to the fact that the
rooting system was very shallow. On this farm the
actual cost of clearing over 100 acres of land has been
$39.30 per acre. About 50 per cent of this land is as
described above. The remainder is low, wet, sandy
land with cedar, tamarack, and occasional white-pine or
Norway-pine stumps. The average number of stumps
per acre was about 12, and their average diameter was

about 10 ins.

TABLE XXI

Cost of Clbaeing Tract No. 6
Pulling stumps:

3 men at $1.7-5 $ 5.25

1 team 1 day 4.50

Use of stump puller 1.50

Piling and burning stumps :

2 men 1.2 days at $1.75 4.20

1 team 1.2 days at $4.50 5.40

Repiling stumps (time estimated) :

2 men, 0.6 day at $1.75 2.10

1 team, 0.6 day at $4.50 2.70

Total for 1 acre • $25.65

Total per stump 0.329

Because of the shallow rooting system and small size
of the stumps, most of them could be pulled by a 2,800-
pound team without the use of blocks and line. The
stumps that could not be pulled by a team were split by
a small charge of dynamite, and the remaining pieces
were pulled out by a team. The second growth on this
land consisted of poplar and bird cherry. Small logs
were numerous. The various items entering into the
cost of clearing were not kept separately. The super-
intendent said that they were approximately as follows

To cut, pile, and burn brush, per acre $10.00

To pile and burn logs, per acre 12.00

To pull, pile, and burn stumps, per acre 17.30

Total cost per acre 39.30

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLKRS 217

Tract No. 7 contained 60 acres, principally of heavy
clay soil, in a few places having sandy-loam soil with a
heavy clay subsoil 6 ins. below the surface. The land
was nearly free from stones and was gently rolling.
The outfit used was a tripod stump puller. This tract
had been logged 20 years before. All the stumps were
white pine. There was no undergrowth or logs. The
tract had been pastured several years and at the time
of stumping was covered with a fairly good clover sod.

The sizes of 354 white-pine stumps selected at random
and measured on this tract were as follows: 12-inch,
2; 14-ineh, 2; 16-inch, 11; 18-inch, 28; 20-inch, 37; 22-
inch, 35 ; 24-inch, 88 ; 26-inch, 65 ; 28-inch, 42 ; 30-inch,
21; 32-inch, 13; 34-inch, 6; 36-inch, 4. The average
diameter was 24.6 ins. The average height was 36 ins.
The total number of stumps pulled was 2,464, the
average per day being 54. The average number per
acre was about 41. The stumps on this tract were piled
in the fall of the year and will be permitted to dry out
for about two years before any attempt will be made to
burn them. The cost was:

TABLE XXII

Total
Pulling, cleaning, and tipping stumps:

2 men, 46 days each at $1.75 $ 161.00

2 men with team, 46 days each at $4.50 414.00

Use of machine, 46 days at $1.50 . 69.00

Piling and burning (estimated) 800.00

Total $1444.00

Average per acre 24.07

Average per stump 0.586

The work of stumping this tract was difficult because
of the nature of the soil and size of the stumps. It was
done under contract by one of the largest stumping con-
tractors in Michigan. All of the crew were experienced
men. The contract price for pulling, cleaning, and
tipping the stumps on this tract was $788, or about 32
ets. per stump. The actual cost was 26 cts. The
average farmer or settler, even though he had the equip-
ment, probably could not do the work as cheaply as it
was done by this contractor.

218 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

Tract No. 8 contained 30 acres of nearly level land
with sandy-loam soil. The outfit used was a tripod
stump puller. The total number of stumps pulled was
2,464. The average number pulled per day was 137.
The average number per acre was about 82. The
average diameter per stump was about 24 ins. This
work was done under contract at 19 cts. per stump for
pulling, cleaning, and tipping. The actual cost was
10.2 cts., as shown below. The low cost of stumping
was largely due to the sandy nature of the soil and the
fact that the stumping crew was experienced. The
stumping was done in the fall. These stumps were to
be piled and burned later in the year.

TABLE XXIII

Item Total
Pulling, cleaning, and tipping:

2 men, 18 days each at $1.75 $ 63.00

2 men with teams, 18 days each at $4.50 162.00

Use of machine, 18 days at $1.50 27.00

Piling and burning (estimated) 616.00

Total $868.00

Average per acre 28.93

Average per stump 0.352

Tract No. 9 contained 30 acres of nearly level land
with sandy-loam soil. The outfit used was a tripod
stump puller. The total number of stumps pulled was
2,000. The average number pulled per day was 134.
The average number per acre was about 67. The aver-
age diameter per stump was about 28 ins. This work
was done under contract at 25 cts. per stump for pull-
ing, cleaning, and tipping. The actual cost was 10.5
cts., as shown below.

TABLE XXIV
Item Total

Pulling, cleaning, and tipping:

2 men, 15 days each at $1.75 $ 52.50

2 men vsrith teams, 15 days each at $4.50 135.00

Use of machine, 15 days at $1.50 22.50

Piling and burning (estimated) 500.00

Total $710.00

Average per acre 23.67

Average per stump 0.355

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 219

This tract was stumped in the summer of 1913. The
low cost of stumping was largely due to the sandy nature
of the soil and the fact that the stumping crew was
experienced. This work was done by the same con-
tractor who stumped tracts Nos. 7 and 8. The stumps
were piled and burned later in the year.

l''ract No. 10 contained 46 acres of nearly level sUt-
loam to clay-loam soil. In places the tract was very
stony; round cobblestones predominated. The outfit
used was a tripod stump puller. This tract had been
logged 30 years before. The second growth and logs
had been previously removed.

The sizes of 114 white-pine stumps selected at random
and measured on this tract were as follows: 12-inch, 1;
18-inch, 2; 20-inch, 8; 22-inch, 7; 24-inch, 22; 26-inch,
9; 28-inch, 10; 30-inch, 12; 32-inch, 17; 34-inch, 9; 36-
inch, 10 ; 38-inch, 1 ; 40-inch, 3 ; 42-inch, 1 ; 44-inch, 1 ;
48-inch, 1. The average diameter was 28.6 ins. and the
average height 36 ins. The total number of stumps
pulled was 1,812. The average number pulled per day
was 48. The average number per acre was 39. This
work was done under contract at 35 cts. per stump for
pulling and cleaning. The actual cost of pulling and
cleaning was 32 cts. per stump, as shown below.

TABLE XXV

Item Total
Pulling and cleaning stumps:

2 men, 37% days each at $1.75 $ 132.12

1 man with team, 37% days at $4.50 169.88

1 man with 3 horses, 37% days at $5.85 220.84

Use of machine, 37% days at $1.50 56.62

Tipping stumps (estimated at 3 cents each) .... 54.36

Piling and burning (estimated) 650.00

Total $1283.82

Average per acre 27.91

Average per stump 0.71

The work was done in June and August by an cxt
tensive stumping contractor. The stony ground made
digging holes under the roots and cleaning the stumps
expensive. The large size of the stumps made their re-

220 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

moval costly. The stumps were to be piled later in the
year by the use of a log jammer.

Tract No. 11. The operation on tract No. 11 con-
sisted of pulling 1,319 large white-pine and scattering
hardwood stumps on silt-loam to clay-loam soil. In
places this tract was very stony. The outfit was a tri-
pod stump puller, the same as that used for tract No.
10, which was adjacent. It had been logged 30 years
before. All the second growth and logs had been re-
moved. The average size of the stumps was slightly
larger than those on tract No. 10. The average number
of stumps pulled per day was 37, and the cost was as

follows :

TABLE XXVI

Total
Pulling and cleaning stumps:

2 men, 35.6 days each at $1.75 $ 124.50

1 man with team, 35.6 days at $4.50 160.20

1 man with 3 horses, 35.6 days at $5.85 208.26

Use of stump puller, 35.6 days at $1.50 53.40

Dynamite { 40 per cent strength ) , 500 pounds,

at 13 cents 65.00

Caps and fuse -2.51

Piling and burning (estimated) 450.00

Total $1063.87

Average per stump 0.806

The time of stumping was August and September,
1913. A small charge of dynamite was placed under
the larger stumps in order to split and loosen them. In
commenting on the use of dynamite here, the contractor
said : ' ' This is the only job in my seven years of stump-
ing where it would pay to use dynamite under nearly
every stump." The owner of this tract had previously
used dynamite in stumping on his land.

Tract No. 12 contained 40 acres of nearly level land
with sandy-loam soil. The outfit was the same as for
tract No. 11. The total number of stumps pulled was
2,400. The total number of stumps per acre was 60.
The. average number of stumps pulled per day was 100.
The stumps averaged somewhat smaller than in the two
preceding tracts, and the soil was sandy loam and free
from stones. This work was done in the spring at a

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 221

contract price of 18 cts. per stump for pulling, cleaning,
and tipping. The actual cost was 14 cts. per stump, as
shown below :

TABLE XXVII

Total
Pulling, cleaning, and tipping stumps:

2 men, 24 days each at $1.75 $ 84.00

2 men with teams, 24 days each at $4.50 216.00

Use of machine, 24 days at $1.50 30.00

Piling and burning (estimated) 432.00

Total $768.00

Average per acre 19.20

Average per stump .32

Tract No. 13 contained 20 acres of practically level
pasture land having a sandy, and in places a gravelly,
surface soil. The subsoil was generally below root
depth. This land had been logged 25 years before.
There were no logs or underbrush. The outfit used was
a tripod stump puller.

Stumps to the number of 1,293 were pulled, piled,
and burned at a contract price of $500, or 38.7 cts. per
stump. By means of the tripod piler shown in Fjgi 63
all these stumps were put into four piles. The stunjps
were pulled in November, 1912.

The sizes of 98 white-pine stumps selected at random
and measured on this tract were as follows: 12-inch,
6; 14-inch, 8; 16-inch, 8; 18-inch, 5; 20-ineh, 10; 22-
ineh, 16; 24-inch, 16; 26-inch, 11; 28-inch, 5; 30-inch,
8; 32-inch, 2; 34-inch, 1; 38-inch, 2. The average
diameter was 23.2 ins.

Several other owners in this neighborhood had con-
tracted to have stumps pulled, cleaned, and tipped for
25 cts. each. The general clearing conditions on these
contracts were the same as for tract No. 10.

Trad No. 14 contained 7.4 acres of very gently roll-
ing pasture land, having a loose, sandy-loam soil. Tbe
outfit used was a tripod machine mounted on two wheels.
This tract had been logged 45 years before. There were
no logs or underbrush.

The sizes of 98 white-pine stumps selected at random
and measured on this tract were as follows: 16-inch,

222

CLEARING AND GRUBBING

Fig. 63. Tripod Stump Filer (Left).
(Right)

Tripod Stump Fuller

7; 18-ineh, 10; 20-inch, 3; 22-ineh, 9; 24-inch, 15; 26-
inch, 14; 28-inch, 8; 30-inch, 6; 32-inch, 7; 34-inch, 4;
36-inch, 6; 38-inch, 3; 40-inch, 1; 42-inch, 4; 48-inch, 1.
The average diameter was 26.77 ins.

The high cost of stumping this tract was principally
due to the inexperience of the contractor and crew and
to the fact that only one light team was used. The eon-
tract price for pulling, cleaning, and tipping the stumps
was 50 cts. each. The actual cost was 56.3 cts. The
owner of the tract was utilizing the roots for fuel. The
total number of stumps was 204 and the number per
acre 28. The number pulled per day was 15. Work
was done in July and August, 1913.

TABLE XXVIII

Item

Total
Fulling, cleaning, and tipping:

1 boy, 131^ days at $1.00 $ 13.25

1 man, 13% days at $1.75 $ 22.19

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 223

Item Total

1 man with team, 13% days at $4.50 $59.62

Use of machine, I314 days at $1.50 19.87

Piling and burning (estimated) 70.00

Total $184.93

Average per acre 25.05

Average per stump 0.907

Tract No. 15 contained 40 acres of very gently rolling
land, having a sandy soil. The clearing was done in the
spring of 1912. The outfit consisted of a tripod stump
puller, two teams, and five men. This outfit and crew
pulled 2,132 stumps in 2O1/2 days, an average of 104
stumps per day. This tract had an average of 90
stumps per acre, of which 20 were Norway pine and 70
were -white pine.

The clearing was done at a contract price of $30 an
acre. The price included the delivery of the Norway-
pine stumps to a turpentine plant 3 miles distant from
the tract, the hauling of nearly one-third of the white-
pine stumps to build fences, and the burning of the re-
mainder of the white-pine stumps. The Norway-pine
stumps had been burned to the surface of the ground
on nearly 10 acres of this tract. A total of 60 cords of
Norway-pine stumps was delivered at the plant. The
price received was $5 per cord of 4,000 lbs. It took an
average of 10 Norway-pine stumps to the cord. Two
cords of stumps per acre were obtained. After deduct-
ing the amount received for the stumps, the net cost of
clearing the tract was $900, or $22.50 per acre. The
contractor still considers $30 a fair price, but owing to
circumstances and bad weather wages were not made
upon this work.

In another case in this neighborhood the owner of 640
acres of land gave all the Norway-pine stumps on it for
the clearing of 15 acres ready for the plow.

Tract No. 16. On a tract of 35 acres of nearly level
land, having a sandy-loam surface soil and a clay sub-
soil, which had been logged 30 years before, 1,050 white-
pine stumps, averaging 26 ins. in diameter, were pulled
with a tripod machine at a contract price of 33% cts.
per stump for pulling, cleaning, and tipping.

224 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

Tract No. 17. On another tract of 105 acres of. nearly
level land, having a sandy-loam surface soil and a clay
subsoil averaging 18 ins. below the surface, which had
been logged 25 to 40 years before, 7,000 white-pine
stumps, averaging 22 ins. in diameter, were pulled with
a tripod machine at a contract price of 25 cts. per stump
for pulling, cleaning, and tipping. These stumps were
hauled into fence rows for 18 cts. per stump, contract
price.

Tract No. 18. On a tract of 10 acres of gently rolling
land having a sandy and gravelly loam surface soil and
in places a clay subsoil, which had been logged 25 years
before, 600 white-pine stumps, averaging 18 ins. in
diameter, were pulled with a tripod machine at a con-
tract price of 30 cts. each for pulling, cleaning, and
tipping.

Tract No. 19. On an adjoining tract of 16 acres, with
soil the same as in tract No. 18, and using the same out-
fit, 330 stumps were pulled, cleaned, and tipped for 30
cts. each. The contractor took both jobs at a flat rate
of 30 ets. per stump.

Tract No. 20 contained 18 acres of cedar-swamp land
that had been very severely burned in 1908 and 1911.
The soil varied from a clay loam to a heavy clay.
Practically all the roots had been burned off. The
stumps rested on top of the ground. One horse could
easily pull nearly every stum.p on this tract. The few
stumps that were too firmly rooted to be pulled by a
horse were loosened by the use of dynamite. The num-
ber of trees and stumips per acre on adjoining similar
tracts was about 300. The stumping and part of the
piling was done from July 15 to October 1, 1912. The
remainder of the piling and all of the burning was done
after April 12, 1913. The work of clearing was thor-
ough. The details of cost are as follows:

TABLE XXIX

Total
Stumping and piling:

1 man as laborer and driver, 60 days at $1.75 .$105.00
1 man as laborer and powder man, 60 days at

$1.75 105.00

1 horse, 60 days at $1.25 75.00

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 225

Total

Total labor cost $285.00

Dynamite (40 per cent strength), 50 pounds, at

20 cents 10.00

Fuse and caps 0.75

Burning stumps and completing clearing:

1 man, 18 days at $1.75 31.50

1 man with team, 18 days at $4.25 76.50

Total 403.75

Average cost per acre 22.43

This swamp clearing is typical of the cost of clearing
much of the severely burned swamp land of Cheboygan
and Presque Isle Counties, Mich.

Disposal of stumps after pulling. Where medium-
sized stumps have been well blasted the problem of
stump disposal is relatively simple. It is considered
cheaper to start several small, conveniently located fires
in the holes made by blasting the stumps and then haul
the remaining pieces to these fires than it is to build a
few large piles and not set them on fire until all the
stumps are piled. Where the stumps have been pulled
by a stump puller without the use of powder the problem
of disposal is more difficult. The general opinion
throughout this region is that the cost of disposal prac-
tically equals the expense of pulling. All data secured
seem to verify the accuracy of this estimate. In the
early days of clearing, the stumps were hauled into rows
to serve as fences. At the present time very few such
fences are being built. The usual contract price for
hauling stumps into fences is 15 to 18 cts. each.

Piling stumps. Large stumps are very hard to pile.
Some owners split the stumps by the use of a small
charge of dynamite placed either in a hole bored into
the base of the stump or in a notch chopped between
two prominent roots. Often the heart of the stump is
sufficiently decayed so that the charge may be placed in
it. A small quantity of dynamite used in this manner
will usually split the stump as well as a much larger
charge would have done before the stump was pulled.

By using a tripod, such as is shown in Fig. 63, with
logs 40 or 45 ft. long and equipped with a double block

226 CLEARING AND GRUBBING-

and 150 ft. of half-inch cable, the stumps can be piled
25 or 30 ft. high. This tripod was used on tract No. 13.
Another good method of piling is to use a piler with a
swinging boom, as shown in Fig. 62. The mast of this
piler is 30 ft. high and the swinging boom 25 ft. long.
In using this boom piler the mast is set so that it leans
slightly toward the pile. This causes the boom to swing
to the center each time. This piler was used in clearing
tract No. 5. Dropping stumps into a fire by means of
piling devices is impracticable, because the heat soon
becomes so intense that the piling operations must be
abandoned.

The work of piling stumps could be hastened mater-
ially if some satisfactory tripping device could be used.
The usual self -tripping tongs and rope trips frequently
catch on projecting roots and drop the load before it is
at the desired position.

Other ways of disposing of stumps. In the past a
considerable number of Norway-pine stumps have been
used by turpentine manufacturers for distillation. The
present low price of turpentine and naval stores has
made the distillation of Norway-pine stumps unprofit-
able, and none of the turpentine plants are now in
operation. The white-pine stump contains too small a
quantity of the properties of the Norway-pine stump to
make it of any value.

Summary and suggestions. There are approximately
11,954,628 acres of logged-off land in Michigan, 10,-
792,100 acres in Wisconsin, and 11,768,000 acres in
Minnesota. A large part of this area will make good
agricultural land if cleared and properly managed. In
many localities poor methods make the clearing of this
land unprofitable. Cutting and burning the second
growth pasturing for several years, and keeping down
all sprout growth is the most economical method of
handling all logged-off lands before stumping them.
Explosives play an important part in clearing land.
On the heavier soils dynamite, with 20 to 30 per cent
of nitroglycerin or its equivalent, is to be preferred.
Cooperative buying in large quantities is recommended.
Stump pullers reduce the cost of stumping on lighter

HAND, HORSE, AND POWER STUMP-PULLERS 227

soils. On the heavier soils the difference between the
cost of clearing by explosives and by the use of stump
pullers is very slight.

The cost of clearing the better grade of white-pine
logged-off land will average $10 per acre for disposing
of the brush and $25 to $30 per acre for disposing of
the stumps, making the cost of clearing $35 to $40 per
acre. Some green hardwood lands and unburned
swamp lands will cost as much as $100 per acre. Some
of the poorer jack-pine lands can be cleared for $5 per
acre or less. The cost of disposing of the stumps after
pulling practically equals the cost of pulling. A tripod
or a boom piler is recommended to facilitate piling and
burning.

The settler with little capital and without experience
who expects to make a farm out of a tract of logged-off
land will find his problem a most trying one. The ex-
periences of those who have attempted it are not en-
couraging. The man who starts farming with even 10
acres of his farm cleared will be much more likely to
succeed than the man who begins on a tract covered
with second growth and stumps. The former will have
land on which to grow hay and other crops the first
year. He can devote his extra time the first three or
four years to the disposal of the second growth on the
remainder of his tract. By seeding this, he will in-
crease the area of his pasture or hay land materially
and will be employing the best preparatory means of
reducing the cost of stumping later. The settler should
not forget that the cheapest and best land clearing is
always done by experienced men with proper equip-
ment.

For these reasons it is recommended that, in all locali-
ties where land companies are selling lands to settlers,
no tract of land be sold unless it contains at least 10
acres of land cleared ready for the plow.

CHAPTER VIII

HEAVY PLOWS

Heavy plows. Heavy plows pulled by traction en-
gines have been used with success in clearing away
brush and stumps of small trees. They will cut all
roots below the ordinary plowing depth but considerable
hand labor will be necessary to gather and remove them.
Raking machines might be devised for gathering the
roots. Two plows made by the Avery Co., of Peoria,
Illinois, are here illustrated.

Fig. 64. Avery Brush Plow

Fig. 64 shows one of these plows, which in connection
with the Avery "Light-Weight" 12-25 and 18-36 H. P.
Tractors, is being used quite extensively in the Northwest
for bringing brush land and land covered with poplar
trees under cultivation at a low cost per acre. Price,
$140 cash.

Pig. 65 shows a plow especially designed for plowing
mesquite and chaparral in Southern Texas and Gulf
Coast territory. Each plow has a share that cuts full
30 inches, but the plows are so set that the furrow slice

228

HEAVY PLOWS 229

Fig. 65. Avery Bull Dog Grub Plow

is only 24 inches wide, leaving the balance of the share
to cut under the previous furrows, and thereby cut off
any roots that may be left.

Numerous attempts have been made to construct a
plow to meet the requirements of this class of work, but
they have all been too light and would not stand the
strain. This machine weighs 10,000 pounds and is very
strongly built.

A wheel gauge is provided so that in hog-wallow land
the depth of plow can be regulated to follow the uneven
surface, turning a furrow at a uniform depth.

The plows are set 5 feet ahead of each other, giving
ample space for brush to clear. The plow standard is
of cast steel and the points are reversible, adjustable,
and renewable, and independent of the share. The
beams are made of two pieces of lV2-inch high carbon
steel, 8 inches wide, and each plow has a draft rod run-
ning direct through to the hitch under the fore carriage
of the engine.

The beam standards are provided with set screw ad-
justment and slotted holes for adjusting the suck of the
plows.

In place of moldboards, l^-inch square bars are pro-
vided, thus the question of cleaning or scouring is elimi-
nated.

In view of the extraordinary weight, raising and low-
ering and manipulating the plows by hand levers have
been found to be impracticable and thus a hand wheel
and screw adjustment lifting device for each plow has
been provided. Thus it will be seen that each plow is
lifted and the depth regulated independently of the
others, Price, $933.

230 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

Clearing land by plowing. Engineering and Con^
trading, Aug. 21, 1912, gives the following:

Clearing an area of scrub oak and hazel-brush patches
is being accomplished near Dennison, la., by means of
a 45-h. p. gasoline tractor and a large plow made by the
International Harvester Co. The, engine bums kero-
sene oil and consumes approximately 20 gals, of kero-
sene a day, costing 7 ets. a gal. It requires two men
■for the operation, one on the engine and one on the plow.
This outfit plows along through the stiff brush and
saplings at the rate of 2 to 2^/^ miles an hour. Trees
and roots 3 ins. thick are easily cut off, and the whole
is turned under a foot of sod. The outfit plows a fur-
row 24 ins. wide and 12 ins. deep. The large plow be-
ing used to turn under hazel-brush and shrubbery is
known as the grub breaker, size 24 ins., heavy steel
beam, using a standing coulter. The plow is mounted
on a two-wheel truck and is regulated by levers. The
weight of the plow is about 1,300 lbs. From 4 to 5 acres
are covered per day.

Clearing brush with a caterpillar tractor. The illus-
tration (Fig. 66) shows a caterpillar tractor fitted with

^.,g^^

^^^^

^

^^^^

^^'

W^

WL^

1^-

^^^8

B

^^^s^^^^^Smm

PSBhHJ

WM

'^S^K-

V:^^^H|fl

llg^

imf^

p

Fig. 66. Holt Caterpillar Tractor with Brush Cutting Device

a brush cutting device for clearing land, for farming,
irrigation, reservoir, road or other work requiring re-
moval of not too large growths. With the equipment

HEAVY PLOWS 231

shown a swath 16 ft. wide was cleared at a rate of 2
miles per hour. The pointed framework attached to the
front of the machine has at the bottom two long, sharp
knives. These knives run close to the ground and cut
the brush close to the surface while the frame above
throws the cut brush aside in windrows. It is stated
that saplings up to 8 in. in diameter have been cut.
Another attachment, which can be used where grubbing
needs to follow clearing, is the plow shown by Fig. 67
and first developed for grubbing grape vine roots by the

Kg. 67. U-Shaped Root Cutter

Killefer Mfg. Co., Los Angeles, for the Stanford Vina
Ranch. As indicated the plow is simply a big U-forg-
ing which goes down any depth desired, from one-half
an inch to 30 in. into the ground and cuts off the roots,
the depth being r^ulated by a simple screw and hand-
wheel. At 24 in. depth the plow has cut roots "8 in. in
diameter. The puller weighs 7,000 lb. It is 15 ft.
long, over all; 7 to 10 ft. high. The main members of
the frame are 12-in. I-beams. In the bottom of the U-
forging is a sharp-edged shoe or plate which cuts the
main roots of the vines. Two wing plates are fastened

232 CLEARING AND GRUBBING

to the upper half of the U to guide it centrally under
the vines. The caterpillar tractor used was made by
the Holt Manufacturing Co., Stockton, Cal., and Peoria,
111.

Clearing sage brush in Silver Lake District, Ore.
John T. Whisler and John H. Lewis in a report on the
Silver Lake Project in Oregon, October, 1915, tinder a
discussion of agricultural conditions give the following
data:

From information obtained from farmers, we find
that the average cost of clearing on twelve farms was
$4.50 per acre. In one instance clearing was being
done with a homemade sage grubber, consisting of a
heavy sled with heavy knives extending out diagonally
on either side of the runners. The sled was drawn by
a traction engine and the brush piled on the sled to use
for fuel in plowing. It was estimated that an acre could
be cleared by this method in one hour when working
steadily. The tool left the soil loose as though it had
been disked.

The following is a list of manufacturers of supplies
and equipment for use in Clearing and Grubbing:

.Etna Powder Company, Chicago, 111.

Bennet & Co., H. L., Westerville, Ohio.

Butterworth & Lowe, Inc., Grand Rapids, Mich.

Clyde Iron Works, Duluth, ilinn.

Cutaway Harrow Co., The, 3924 Main St., liigganum. Conn.

Du Pont Powder Co., Wilmington, Del.

Faultless Stump Puller Co., R. S. Caward, Pres., Creseo, Iowa.

Foundry Motor Car & Mfg. Co., Inc., St. Albans, Vt.

K Hand Power Stump Puller, 182 Sth St., San Francisco, Cal.

Kansas City Hay Press Co., Kansas City, ilo.

Kirstin Co., A. J., 6041 Ludington St., Escanaba, Mich.

Jlilne Manufacturing Co., Monmouth, 111.

Smith Grubber Co., W., La Crosse, Wis.

Swenson Grubber Company, Creseo, Iowa.

Zimmerman Steel Company, Lone Tree, Iowa.

233

INDEX

Age, effect on stumps ....

Age of stumps, eflfect on
burning

Anchor stump

Apple trees

Grubbing by hand

Appraisal of clearing and
grubbing

Area cleared, how consti-
tuted

Arrangement of hitches . .

Ash, rapid decay of stumps
Roots

Assembling timber, cost
per acre

Auger

Avery brush plow

Axes

Bar for locating roots ....

Barking

Big tree stumps, method

of blasting

Blasting

As an aid to pulling . . .

Charge

Cost 116, 132, 202, 203,

Cost at Oyster Bay,
Long Island

Cost in Kentucky

Cost in New Jersey . . .

Cost of blasting bored
stumps

Cost on Long Island . . .

Efficiency

Blower, cost of using ....

Blowing machine, burning

logs

Cost

Experiment with

For stump burning ....

7 Boring, by power 85

By power driven outfit 111
82 Cost with machine .... 114

148 Machine 69

62 Outfit cost 115

62 Boulders, hitch for remov-
ing 154

16 Box for carrying explo-
sives 93

23 British Columbia, clearing
172 and grubbing a dam

7 site 56

6 Brush, cut with special de-
vice hauled by a

43 tractor 230

93 Grubbed by plowing ... 230

228 Hooks 37

37 Brushing, cost per acre ... 42

Brutting 1

109 Bucker 1

1 Bucking, cost 200, 203

Cost per acre 57

lOS Definition of 1

92 Bull cook 1

169 Burner, experiment with 79

51 Burning 50

212 And char-pitting 68

Boring, holes for 68

131 Conclusions on use of

123 blowing machine 88

122 Cost 214

Cost of blower 78, 84

115 Stumps 171

117 Stumps around gin pole 178

47 Stumps piled with der-

78 rick 192

With blowing machine 80
81 Burning brush, cost per

78 acre 42

79 Burning stumps, efficiency

76 of char-pitting method 72

235

236

INDEX

Cable, for pulling with ma-
chine 176, 186

Ca;p crimpers 93

Caps, care in handling . . 97
Capstan, horse power puller 144

Stump puller 208

Catalpa, durability of

stumps 7

Cedar, durability of ce-
dar stumps 7

Method of blasting 107

Stumps destroyed by
blowing machine .... 81
Chains, for use with pull-
ers 157, 161

Charge, locating 102

Char^itting, at Globe,

Ore 74

Conclusions 73

Cost 73

Efficiency of 72

Stumps 70

Chaser 1

Chestnut, durability of

stumps 7

Koots 6

Choker 1, 177, 179

Self releasing 179

Clearing, definition of . . . . 1
Clyde Iron Works, stump

pulling machine 184

Clutch hand stump

puller 141

Cone, for use in log skid-
ding 165

Contract prices for clear-
ing and grubbing .... 16

Corduroy roads 57

Cordwood, cost 118

Cost of cutting 58

Cost of piling 43

Rate of cutting 58

Splitting cost 43

Value 43

Cost, effect of method of

excavation on 12

Factors in 5

Cracking stumps for pull-
ing 169

Crops following clearing . . 63
Crow-bar 93

Cutaway harrow 52

Cutting machine for

stumps 189

Cypress, method of blast-
ing stumps 105

Daily report form 132

Dam, clearing for dam in

Oklahoma 66

Specifications for clear-
ing and grubbing for 28

Deadening 1

Derrick for piling stumps

192, 215

Directory of Mfgrs 233

Disposal of stumps after

"pulling 225

Distillation of Norway

pine stumps 226

Distilling stumps in place 89

Dogwood roots 7

Donkey engine, cost ..181, 182
Estimate and specifica-
tions 181

Method of clearing .... 175

Operating speed 181

Suggested improvements 178
Douglas fir, cost of grub-
bing 196

Drum, hand stump puller 141
Dynamite, amount required 106
Amount used in success-
ful blasting 109

Method of handling ... 95

Properties of 92

Used for topping spar
tree 178

Electric blasting machine 99

Electric firing 100

Elevated grader work, cost

of grubbing for 13

Grubbing for 63

Elm, roots 7

Estimating, shrinkage .... 14
Small tracts of standing

timber 16

Excavation, effect of va-
rious methods on cost

of grubbing 12

INDEX

237

Loss due to removal of

stumps 15

Explosive, amount required 106
Grade for use with tap

rooted stumps 115

Explosive, kinds used in

Wisconsin 92

Method of handling dy-
namite 95

Factors effecting cost of
clearing and grub-
bing 209

Faller 2

Falling, cost 200

Cost per acre 57

Definition of 2

Felling, definition of 2

Fence posts, value 43

Fences, use of stumps for

223, 224

Fir, amount of dynamite
used for blasting

stumps 110

Cost of grubbing Doug-
las fir 196

Method of blasting 107

Stumps destroyed by
blowing machine ..78, 81

Weight of 58

Firing, charges 99

Electric 100

Florida, cost of clearing

road at Palatka 18

Flunkey 2

Frost, an aid in grubbing 61

Fruit tree, roots 6

Fuse 95

Gin pole 176

Used grubbing Doug-
las fir 196

Girdling 1

Glossary of terms 1

Green stumps 102

Blasting efficiency 47

Pulling 48

Grub axes 60

Grub plow 149

Grubbing by hand 60

Definition of 2

Gum, amount of dynamite
used in blasting

stumps 110

Black gum roots 6

Eapid decay of stumps 7

Hackberry blasting in Ken-
tucky 126

Hand grubbing aided by

frost 61

Cost 116

Heavy plows 228

Hemlock, amount of dyna-
mite used in blasting

stumps 110

Rapid decay of stumps 7
Roots 7

Hiclcory, rapid decay of

stimips 7

Roots 6

Highway, clearing in Ore-
gon 134

Specifications for clear-
ing and grubbing
for 25

Hints on placing charges 96

Hitches, arrangement of

multiple power 171

Hitching to stumps 151

Home-made horse stumps

piler 199

Horse power stump pull-
ers 142, 145

Hubbard stump burner ... 89

Improvements in donkey

engine outfit 178

Interstate Commerce Com-
mission's valuation of
clearing and grub-
bing 18

Judson powder 122

Kentucky, cost of blasting

ing stumps in 123

Knees, for ship building 150

Lake States, costs and
methods of clearing
land . . . ; 207

238

INDEX

Land clearing practice. ... 35
Land, extent of, logged off

in Washington 173

Lateral rooted stumps .... 102

Lateral roots 7

Law, decision of court in
clearing and grub-
bing 24

Legal decision relating to
clearing and grub-

ing 24

Loading holes 97

Locating charge 101

Locomotive crane pulling

stumps 165

Locust, durability of lo-
cust stumps 7

Roots 7

Logging, cost per acre ... 42
Logs, — burning with

blower 81

Cost of piling 43

Cost of skidding 43

Cost of rolling and burn-
ing 57

Piling with pile driver . . 166

Rig for skidding 164

Machetes 37

Man power stump pullers 138
Maple, amount of dyna-
mite used in blasting

stumps Ill

Soft maple roots 7

Marion log loader 167

Maryland, cost of clearing

reservoir 116

Massachusetts, cost of
clearing Spot Pond

Reservoir 62

Cost at Springfield 197

Material lost through grub-
bing 14

Mattocks . : 60

McEwen patented cone ... 165

McGiflfert log loader 166

Minnesota, cost of clear-
ing in 39

CoSt of stumping 131

Misfires 101

Moving houses with stump

puller 151

New Jersey, cost of blast-
ing l,iOO stumps 122

New York, blasting 3,500
stumps on Long Is-
land 119

Clearing on Long Island 130
Cost of clearing a reser-
voir at Indian River 54
Grubbing reservoir site 128

Norway pine, cost 223

Notching 2

Oak, amount of dynamite
used for blasting

stumps 110

Blasting in Kentucky . . 124
Cost of blasting white

oak 116

Durability of stump ... 7

White oak roots 6

Oak stumps, burning .... 75
Ohio, cost of clearing res-
ervoir 194

Oklahoma, clearing for

earth dam 66

Old logs, cost of blasting 203
Old stumps, burning .... 82
Ontario, bidding prices for

clearing land 54

Oregon, char pitting

stumps at Globe, Ore. 74
Clearing sage brush with

tractor 232

Cost by various methods 182
Cost of clearing for

highway 134

Osage orange, blasting in

Kentucky 126

Paying for clearing and

grubbing, methods of 20

Paying, system of 27

Payment for clearing and

grubbing 23

Persimmon, roots 6

Pile driver 166

Filer, home-made 199

Piling, by donkey engine 175

Cost 198, 216

INDEX

239

Stumps 49, 171, 225

Stumps with derrick . . . 214

Use of choker 177

With derrick 192

With tripod piler 221

Piling and burning, cost 133
Pine, amount of dynamite
used for blasting

stimips 109

Blasting in Kentucky 124
Boring stumps with

power drill 112

Cost of blasting • 116

Cost of grubbing Nor-
way pine stumps .... 223
Cost of removing white

pine stumps 221, 212

Cost pulling white pine 217
Distilling stumps in

place 89

Durability of pine

stumps 7

Method of blasting 107

White pine roots 6

Yellow pine roots 6

Pioneer land clearing ma-
chine 188

Plowing, brush 230

With caterpillar tractor 230

Plows, heavy 228

Pole wood, cost cutting . . 43
Poplar, rapid decay of

stumps 7

Roots 6

Power driven outfit for

boring Ill

Power hitches, arrange-
ment of 171

Power puller 208

Power pulleys 168

Puller, Capstan 208

Power 208

Tripod 208

Pulling, at Springfield,

Mass 197

By donkey engine 175

Cost 182, 198, 202, 212, 213

Cost with team 216

Cost with tripod machine

217, 218

Force and speed of ma-

chine 186

On reservoir site in West

Virginia 158

Sniall tress 154

Small trees with traction

engines 205

Pulling stumps 168

Cost with man power

machine 139

Time per acre 48

With locomotive crane . 165

Railroad right of way,

cost of clearing 200

Specifications for clear-
ing and grubbing of 32

Ranking 2

Redwood, method of blast-
ing 108

Reservoir, clearing a site

in West Virginia .... 158
Clearing for reservoir in

Massachusetts 62

Cost of clearing in Mary-
land 116

Cost of clearing in Ohio 194
G-rubbing Kensico Res-
ervoir, N. Y 128

Specifications for clear-
ing and grubbing for 28
Rig for losf skidding .... 164

Rigging, slinger 2

Stump pullers 143

Road, specifications of
clearing and grubbing

for 24

Roots, lateral 7

Semi-tap 6

Tap 6

Types of 6

Rossing 1

Rotary stump cutting ma-
chine 189

Sage brush, cost of clear-
ing with a tractor . . 232

Sassafras, roots 6

Sawing, relative rate of . . 8

Scaling i 2

Scraper work, cost of grub-
bing for 13

240

INDEX

Sciota. River reservoir . . . 194

Seeding 52

In Washington 174

Self- releasing choker .... 180

Semi-tap rooted stumps . . 102

Shovel . . , 93

Shrinkage, due to grub-
bing 14

Single trees 61

Skidding 2

Rig for 164

Speed of Clyde Iron

Works machine 186

Skidding logs, cost of ... . 43

Skid roads 57

Slack rope, clutch for talc-
ing up 153

Slashing 2

Cost 202, 203

Small trees, method of pull-
ing 151

Pulled with traction en-
gine 20-';

Pulling 154

Snags 213

Snaking 2

Sniping 2

Spar tree 178

Specifications, criticism of 19
For clearing and grub-
bing for an earth dam
at McAlester, Okla. . 29
For clearing and grub-
bing on railroad work 32
For various water works

projects 28, 29

Main dam Asholian Res-
ervoir 31

Reservoir and dam .... 28

Road 24

Speed, of donkey engine

outfit 181

Of pulling -with Clyde

Iron Works machine 186
Spruce, amount of dyna-
mite used for blasting

stumps 110

Stumps 174

Standing timber, estimat-
ing 16

Steam land clearing ma-

chine 187, 190

Steam shovel work, cost of

grubbing for 13

Stripping, specifications

for 28, 30

Stumping 2

Powder ; 2

Stump burner 75, 89

Blowing machine for

stump burning 76

Stump puller, Boyle's.... 154
Clyde Iron Works ma-
chine . 184

Large base 146

Small base 145

Sweep 155, 159

Tripod 162

Stvunp pullers, capacity . . 137

Cost 137

Horse power 142, 145

Man power 138

B-igging 143

Stumps, burning 68

Char-pitting 70

Cost of burning with a

blower 78

Cost of piling 49

Destroying with blower 77

Effect of age on 7

Loss in excavation due to

removal of 15

Method ^ for hitching

stump puller 151

Sub-soil, relation of explo-
sive to 98

Swamping 2

Cost 200

Cost per acre 57

Sweep stump puller . . 155, 159

Take ups : . . 149, 168

Topping spar tree 178

Tap-root pine, amount of
dynamite used in

blasting Ill

Tap-rooted stumps 102

Tap root stumps, boring

with power drill 112

Tap roots 6

Terms, glossary of 1

INDEX

241

Texas, cost of clearing
with pulling ma-
chine 187

Tongs for use with piling

derrick 193

Tools, auger 93

Axes 37

Bar for locating roots . . 109

Brush hooks 37

Cap crimper 93

Crow-bar 93

Cutaway harrow 52

Electric blasting ma-
chine 99'

Grub axes 60

Machetes 37

Mattocks 60

Shovel 93

Supply box '. . . . 93

Wooden ramrod 93

Traction engine, pulling

small trees 205

Used for clearing sage

brush 232

Used for plowing out

brush 230

Trees, number per acre ... 8

Tripod, stump piler 221

Tripod stump puller, 162, 208

Cost 164

Cost of using 218, 219

Turpentine recovery, ma-
chine for cutting

stumps 189

Distilling Norway pine 226
Distilling stumps in
place 89

U-sha.ped root cutter 231

Valuation of clearing and
grubbing by Inter-
state Commerce Com-
mission 18

Virite, properties of 92

Walnut, amount of dyna-
mite used in blasting

stumps 110

Roots 6

Washington, acres of

logged off land 10

Cost of various methods 182
Cost clearing Okanogan

Project 57

Extent of logged off land 173
Weeds, destroyed with har-
row 195

Weighted diameter 9, 11

West Virginia, removing
stumps from a reser-
voir site 158

Wet logs, burning 81

Willow, method of blasting

stumps 105

Yarding 2

Cost 200

LAND OWNERS

Reclaim Your Waste Land.

If you have:
STUMPS to remove,
BOULDERS to remove or

shatter,
TREES to fell or to plant,
SWAMPS to drain, or
ANY idle or worn-out land to

reclaim,

There is a Hercules Explosive to do the work. Her-
cules Service goes with all Hercules Explosives.

Dynamite

is no longer an agricultural experiment. Its useful-
ness and practicability on farm or ranch is thoroughly
established by many thousands of successful users.

The Scarcity of Labor

is the enemy of progress in agriculture. The practi-
cal and economical solution of this difficulty is the use
of Hercules Dynamite, " the new farm hand."

Write for information and prices.

" Progkessive Cultivation " is the title
of our complete manual on the many uses
of Dynamite on the farm. Copy sent
free on request to our nearest office.

HEI^ULES POWDEIl CO.

Chicago, 111.
Denver, Colo.
Hazleton, Pa.
Joplin, Mo.
New York, N. T,

Wilmington, Delaware

Pittsburg, Kans.
Pittsburgh, Pa.
Salt Lake City, Utah.
San Francisco, Gal.
St. Louis, Mo.

Subsidiary: HERCULES POWDER SALES CO.
Knoxville, Tenn. Memphis, Tenn.

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THE TRACKMAN'S HELPER

By P. Kindelan

Revised by R. T. Dana and A. P. Trimble

Ready in Oct., 1916

Handbook size and binding $2.00

Written to help the man on the track, by giving him the results of
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HANDBOOK OF EARTH EXCAVATION, METHODS AND COST

By Halbert P. Gillette

Ready Jan. 1, 1917

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COST KEEPING
AND MANAGEMENT ENGINEERING

By H. P. Gillette, Consulting Engineer, Mem. Am. Soc, C. E., Am. Soc.

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XIV, Design of Buildings.

MELAN'S THEORY OF ARCHES

AND SUSPENSION BRIDGES

Translated by D. B. Steinman, C. B. Ph.D., Prof, of Civil Engineering,

Univ. Idabo, author of "Suspension Bridges and Cantilevers"
Cloth, 6x9, 310 pages, 120 illustrations $3.00

This is a complete, authorized translation of Professor Melan's masterpiece
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The Flexible Arch and the Unstiffened Cable; The Stiffened Suspension
Bridge; The Arched Rib (the Three Hinged Arch, Arched Rib with End
Hinges, Arched Rib without Hinges, The Cantilever Arch, the Continuous
Arch) ; Arch and Suspension Systems with Braced Web; Combined Sys-
tems ; Appendix — The Elastic Theory Applied to Masonry and Concrete
Arches, Temperature Variation in Steel and Masonry Bridges.

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German method of starting at the beginning and taking nothing for granted
is followed. In the opening chapters a masterly exposition of the condi-
tions of statical determinacy and indeterminacy is given, as also the general
forms into which hinged and fixed arches may be resolved. The book deserves
a place in the library of every practising engineer who has anything to do with
structures of any kind, and will amply compensate him for all time devoted
to the study of its pages."

DIAGRAMS FOB THE DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE

STRUCTURES

By G. F. Dodge

Cloth, 151^ X 12%, 112 pages, 43 diagrams $4.00

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Table of Contents

Formulae and Discussion; Straight Line Variations of Stress; Slabs;
Cinder Concrete; Rectangular Beams; T Beams; Compressive Reinforce-
ment; Hooped Columns, Ultimate Loads; Hooped Columns, Working
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Beams.

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MILL BUILDINGS
DESIGN AND CONSTKUCTION
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Cloth, 6 X 9, 490 pages, 652 illustrations, with chapter comparing

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" Mill Buildings " thoroughly covers ,the latter a.s well as the former, in
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Chapter Headings
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Site; Purpose and Arrangement; Number of Stories; "Walls; Cost of Steel
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ARTISTIC BRIDGE DESIGN
By Henry Grattan Tyrrell, C. E., author of Mill Building Construction,
Concrete Bridges and Culverts, History of Bridge Engineering, and
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Cloth, 6V4, X 914, 290 pages, illustrated $3.00

Long after the cost of a bridge is forgotten, its appearance stands for
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The work is divided as follows:
Subject. Pages.

Introduction by Thomas Hastings, Importance of Bridges, Reasons
and Standards for Art in Bridges, Causes for Lack of Art, and

Special Features of Bridges 34

Principles of Design 15

Ordinary Steel Structures 6

Cantilever Bridges 6

Metal Arches 16

Suspension Bridges 10

Masonry Bridges 24

Illustrations and Descriptions 157

These last are taken from representative structures all over the world,
covering the general classes mentioned above. The illustrations alone
justify the book.

America has the reputation for having *' the greatest number of bridges,
and the ugliest." Mr. Tyrrell's work is an effort to reform the policy that
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FIELD SYSTEM
By Frank B. Gilbreth

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STEEL BRIDGE DESIGllTING
By Melville B. Wells, C. E., Assoc. Prof. Bridge & Struc. Eng.. Armour

Inst. Technology
Cloth, 6x9 inches, 250 pages, 47 illustrations, 27 folding plates. .. .$2.50

A text book for engineering students and a reference work for designing
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The twenty-seven folding plates, which are reproductions of actual
drawings taken from standard practice, make the book especially valuable.

Another valuable feature, especially for the draughting room, is the
copy of the general specifications for steel railway bridges, adopted by the
American Bailway Engineering Association, elaborately cross indexed in
this book.

Chapter Headings

Engineers' Work and Contracts, Bridge Manufacture ; Rivets; The De-
sign of a Roof Truss; Types and Details of Highway Bridges; Design of
a Riveted Truss Highway Bridge; Types and Details of Railway Bridges;
Design of a Plate Girder Railroad Bridge; Design of a Riveted Truss
Railroad Bridge; A Pin Connected Bridge; Shop Drawings; Strength of
Materials; Bibliography; Specifications.

CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION, METHODS AND COST
By H. F. Gillette, Consulting Engineer, and Charles S. Hill, Associate

Editor of Engineering and Contracting
6% xQVi, cloth, 690 pages $5.00

Devoted to tlie economics of concrete for the builder of concrete struc-
tures. The authors are constantly in touch with the best and cheapest
methods of concrete construction ; Mr. Gillette, through his field work, and
Mr. Hill, as editor of Engiiieering and Contracting.

CHAPTERS; — Methods and Cost of Selecting and Preparing Materials
for Concrete ; Theory and Practice of Proportioning Concrete ; Making
and Placing Concrete by Hand; Making and Placing Concrete by Machine;
Depositing Concrete Under Water and of Subaqueous Grouting; Making
and Using Rubble and Asphaltic Concrete; Laying Concrete in Freezing
Weather; Finishing Concrete Surfaces; Form Construction; Concrete Pile
and Pier Construction; Heavy Concrete Work in Fortifications, Locks,
Dams, Breakwaters and Piers; Constructing Bridge Piers and Abutments;
Constructing Retaining Walls; Constructing Concrete Foundations for
Pavement; Constructing Sidewalks, Pavements, Curbs and Gutters;
Lining Tunnels and Subways; Constructing Arch and Girder Bridges;
Culvert Construction; Reinforced Concrete Building Construction; Build-
ing Construction of Separately Molded Members; Aqueduct and Sewer Con-
struction ; Constructing Reservoirs- and Tanks ; Constructing Ornamental
Work; Miscellaneous Methods and Costs; Waterproofing Concrete Struc-
tures.

E^TGINEERS' POCKETBOOK OF REINFORCED CONCRETE
By E. Lee Heideureich, Mem. Am. So c. Test. Materials; M. W. S. E.;

Mem. Am. Inst. Min. Eng.
Flexible leather, 374 pages, 4^^ x6% inches, 80 tables, illustrated. . .$3.00

Here is tlie " Trautwine " of reinforced concrete; 'the" product of the
author's 3 5 years' experience in the design and " construction of rein-
forced concrete.

The tables and formulse were designed particularly to save time in the
draughting room, not simply inserted as detached bits of information.

The formulai are not simply stated, but developed and illustrated with
examples as well, so that the beginner or " rusty " mind can grasp them
readily.

Chapter Headings

Materials and Machines Used in Concrete Construction; Design and
Construction of Buildings; Design and Construction of Bridges; Abut-
ments and Retaining Walls; Culverts, Conduits, Sewers, Pipes and Dams;
Tanks, Reservoirs, Bins and Grain Elevators; Chimneys. Miscellaneous
Data.

Engineering News: *' Mr. Heidenreich's pocket-book is nearer the ideal
than any on the same subject heretofore published."

CLARK BOOK CO., INC., 27 William Street, New York City

WAliKJBK'S BUILDING ESTIMATOES' EBFEEENCE WOKK

By Frank B. Walker, a Contractor

Flexible leather, handbook size, 1600 pages $5.00

This is a practical and thoroughly reliable reference book for contractors
and estimators engaged in estimating the cost of and in constructing all
classes of modern buildings.

It gives the actual labor costs and methods employed in the erection of
some of our present day structures, together with all the necessary mate-
rials, prices and labor quantities entering into the costs of all classes of
buildings.

Contents

General Conditions and Overhead Expense; Wrecking and Excavating;
Caissons ; Lagging and Concrete ; Wood and Concrete Piles ; Concrete for
Footings and Foundations; Water and Damp Proofing; Concrete Floors
and Pavements; Reinforced Concrete Construction; Brick Masonry;
Rubble Work, Cut Stone, Granite and Architectural Terra Cotta; Hollow
Tile Fireproofing; Rough Carjientry; Timber Framing, Lumber, Flooring,
etc.; Mill Work and Interior Finish; Plastering; Fire Retarding Doors and
Windows ; Slieet Metal Work, etc. ; Roofing, Slate, Tile, Composition, etc. ;
Exterior and Interior Models, Slate or Scagliola ; Interior Tiling, Floors,
Wainscoting, Mantels, etc.; Glass and Glazing; Painting and Varnishing;
Structural Iron and Steel; Miscellaneous and Ornamental Iron, Brass and
Bronze; Miscellaneous Building Specialties, Vault Doors, Prismatic Side-
walk Lights, Blackboards, etc. ; Rough and Finish Hardware ; Plumbing,
Sewerage and Gas Fitting; Steam and Hot Water Heating, Electric Wiring.

BRICKLAYING SYSTEM

By Frank B. Gilbreth, Mem. Am. Soc. M. E.

Cloth, 6x9 inches, 330 pages, 167 illustrations, 73 bond charts ....$3.00

This book was written by one of the largest general contractors in New
York, for his own foremen and superintendents, but is vastly more than a
mere rule book.

It is the application of the new movement for more science in manage-
ment, to bi'icklaying in ]>articular, but its principles are applicable to the
entire building and engineering industry. ■

Brick costs must be reduced if brick is to hold its place as a building
material in the face of concrete's competition. Gilbreth's " Bricklaying
System " is a great help in this direction.

There is no contractor doing brick work who is not vitally interested in
the reduction of costs, and "Bricklaying .System" can help him, unless
he already knows all there is to be known.

Chapter Headings

Training Apprentices; Methods of Management; Methods of Construc-
tion; Routing of Material; Scaffold, The Gilbreth Scaffold, Hod Tvpe; the
Gilbreth Scaffold, Packet Type; The Gilbreth Packet Svstem; Method of
Building Tall Chimneys ; Mortar ; Bricks ; Bricklayers' Tools, etc. ; Lines,
Plumbs and Poles; Motion Study; Methods of Laying Brick Under Special
Conditions; Finishing, Jointing and Pointing; Arches and Chimney
Breasts ; Tearing Down, Cutting Out and Patching Brickwork ; Bond.

INSPECTION OF CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
By Jerome Cochran

Cloth, 6x9, 595 pages, illustrated : $4.00

Covers over 200 different special subjects under concrete, elaborately in-
dexed for quick reference. An encyclopedia for the inspector, engineer,
vuperintendent or foreman on concrete work.

Chapter Headings
Inspection of Hydraulic Cement; Inspection of Sand, Stone, etc., In-
spection of Proportioning and Mixing; Inspection of Forms, Molds, Cen-
tering, etc.; Inspection of Steel Reinforcement; Inspection of Concreting;
Inspection of Surface Finishes: Inspection of Waterproofing; Inspection of
Sidewalks, Curbs and Pavements; Inspection of Ornamental Work, Blocks,
etc. ; Inspection of Molding and Driving Concrete Piles ; Definition of
Terms, List of Authortties, Index.

CLARK BOOK CO., INC., 27 William Street, New York City

CONCRETE AND REINFORCED CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

Sy Homer A. Reid, Assoc. M. Am. Soc. C. E. Asst. Eng., Bureau of

Bldgs., N. Y.

Cloth, 6x9 inches, 906 pages, 70 tables, 715 illustrations $5.00

A laook of almost a thousand pages on concrete design and construction.

» Contents
Historical Use and Development of Cement and Concrete ; Classification
and Manufacture of Cement; Properties of Cement and Methods of Testing;
Sand, Broken Stone, and Cravel; Proportioning Concrete; Mixing Con-
crete ; Placing Concrete ; Cost of Concrete ; Finishing Concrete Surfaces ;
General Physical Properties; The General Elastic Properties of Concrete;
Physical Properties of Reinforcing Metals; Principles and Disposition of
Reinforcement; Mechanical Bond; Styles of Slab Reinforcement; Styles of
Beam Reinforcement; Curved Pieces Strained in Flexui-e; Columns, Walls
and Pipes; General Phenomena of Flexure; Theory of Beams; Various
Beam Theories; Theory of Columns; Foundations; General Building Con-
struction; Practical Construction; Retaining Walls; Dams; Conduits and
Sewers; Tank and Reservoir Construction; Chimneys, Tunnels, Subways,
Railroad Ties, Fence Posts, Piers and Wharves ; Concrete in Bridge Con-
struction ; Arch Bridge Centers and Methods of Construction ; Bridge
Floors; Bridges, Piers and Abutments; Concrete Building Blocks.

THEORY AND DESIGN OF CONCRETE ARCHES

By Arvid Reuterdahl

Cloth, 6x9, 132 pages $2.00

Every principle of concrete arch design is explained thoroughly — there
are no missing steps in the mathematics.

Engineering News says: "For the student who wishes to get in one
book the whole theory, to its minutest details, of the reinforced concrete
arch, and w^ho is not over-awed by a succession of formula-filled pages, we
can commend this book. For any beginner in the designs of. such bridges,
the latter part will prove most useful."

PRACTICAI, CEMENT TESTING
By W. Purves Taylor

Cloth, 6x9 inches, 330 pages, 58 tables, 142 illustrations $3.00

Adopted by University of Pennsylvania and other technical schools. Es-
pecially valuable in the instructions on interpreting results of tests.

Contents
Classification and Statistics, Composition and Constitution, Manufacture,
Inspection and Sampling; The Testing of Cement; Specific Gravity; Fine-
ness, Time of Setting ; Tensile Strength ; Soundness ; Chemical Analysis ;
Special Tests ; Approximate Tests ; Practical Operation ; Other Varieties of
Cement; Specifications; Appendices Giving A. S. C. E., N. Y. Section,
Society for Chemical Industry, A. S. T. M., U. S. Army, British and Cana-
dian Methods of Testing and Specifications.

CIVIL ENGINEERS* POCKET BOOK

By Albert I. Frye

Handbook size, leather, 1600 pages, illustrated $5.00

This is the encyclopedia of civil engineering, as may be seen from the
table of contents :

Mathematics ; Mechanics ; Stresses in Structures ; Materials ; Explosives ;
Preservatives; Lumber and Lumbering; Building Stones and Cements;
Quarrying; Stone Cutting; Masoni-y; Stereotomy; Weights of Materials;
Strength of Materials ; Properties of Plane Surfaces ; Properties and Tables
of Steel Shapes; Beams and Girders; Columns; Structural Details : Metal
Gages; Cordage; Wire and Cables; Pipes and Tubes; Railway Bridges;
Electric Railway Bridges; Highway Bridges; Cantilever Bridges; Movable
Bridges; Suspension Bridges; Arches; Trestles; Roofs;. Buildings; Retain-
ing Walls; Dams; Foundations; Wharves, Piers and Docks; Breakwaters;
Jetties; Earthwork; Rock Excavations; Dredging: Tunneling; Surveying;
Mapping and Leveling ; Railroads ; Highways ; Hydrostatics ; Hydraulics ;
Water Supply; Water Works; Sanitation; Irrigation; Waterways; Water
Power; Steam and Gas Power; Electric Power and Lighting; Miscellaneous
Data and Illustrations, all completely indexed, a total of 1600 pages.

CLARK BOOK CO., INC., 27 WiUiam Street, New York City

CONCRETE BRIDGES AND CULVERTS
Sy Henry Grattan Tyrrell, 0. E.

Flexible leather, 414 x 6% (handbook size), 272 pages $3.00

A handbook on the design and construction of concrete bridges, in which
the simplest and easiest formula! have been used, and only those actually
necessary in the design of these structures.

Contents
Plain Concrete Arch Bridges; Reinforced Concrete Arch Bridges; High-
way Beam Bridges; Concrete Culverts and Trestles.

MILITARY PREPAREDNESS AND THE ENGINEER
By Capt. E. F. Robinson, Corps of Engineers, N. G. N. Y.

Handbook size and binding, 224 pages, illustrated $1.50

Chapters
. How to Obtain Military Training; The National Guard; Military Organi-
zation; Administration; Engineer Troops in the Field; Fire Action; Field
Fortifications ; Obstacles ; Siege Works ; Demolitions ; Military Bridges ;
Topographical Sketching ; Needs of the Engineers in War ; Bibliography ;
Reading Matter for Civilian Engineers ; Property Carried by a Company of
Engineers in the Field.

BACKBONE OF PERSPECTIVE
By T. U. Taylor

Cloth, 4% X 7 inches, 56 pages, illustrated $1.00

Chapter Headings
Primary Methods ; Vanishing Point Method ; Axometrlc Projections ;
Shades and Shadows.

LAW OF CONTRACT
Sy Alexander Haiing

Cloth, 6x9, 510 pages $4.00

Engineers and contractors, with the guidance of this book, may save
themselves disastrous losses by litigation or legal fees.

The rules of law in each chapter are illustrated by cases from practice,
and opinions from cases of engineering litigations. The chapters are: The
Contract; Its Inherent Elements; Its Formation; Parties Affected; Its
Interpretation; Its Discharge.

GRAPHIC STATICS
By Charles W. Malcolm, C. E., Asst. Prof. Structural Engineering,
University of 111.; Assoc. Mem. Am. Soc. C. E., and Soc. for Pro-
motion of Engineering Education

Cloth, 6x9 inches, 330 pages, 155 drawings $3.00

A book for the designer and draughtsman, anyone in structural work, in
fact, who desires a knowledge of the principles back of structural design.

Two, criticisms applicable to many text books on graphic statics do not
apply to this, that is, every construction given here is so fully developed that
the principle behind it is clearly seen, and second, elaborate solutions which .
have little or no practical application have not been allowed to pad the book
and confuse the student.

The four parts of the text are:
I, General Principles ; II, Framed Structures, Roof Trusses ; III, Beams ;
!>, Bridges.

LAND DRAINAGE
By J. L. Parsons Assoc. Mem. W. S. E.

Cloth, 6x9, 195 pages, 32 figures $1.50

Contents
Preliminary Drainage Surveys; The Design of Tile Drains; Tile Drain
Outlet Walls and Inlets; Design and Maintenance of Open Drains; Plans,
Reports and Records ; The Estimate of Costs of Drainage Systems ; The
Preparation and Enforcement of Drainage Specifications ; The Division of
Costs of Drainage Systems; The Quality and Inspection of Drain Tile.
Twentv-two tables and 36 illustratioiis.

Engineering Berord : ". . . written with painstaking thoroughness and
with a marked effort to make it clear to the nontechnical mind. It deals
with all the problems likely to be met with on land drainage projects from
the preliminary survey to the contractors' financing operations."

CLARK BOOK CO., INC., 27 William Street, New York City